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Abbasova, A. et al. 2005. Evaluation of dispersants for use in the Azerbaijan region of the Caspian Sea. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 247-252. URL
Abstract
Open marine water (salinity 30-35‰) is the environment where dispersants are used most frequently in oil spill response. In the Azerbaijan sector of the Caspian Sea, offshore oil and gas reserves are being developed in areas where salinity ranges from 10 to 12‰. Because salinity can affect dispersant efficacy and toxicity, the effectiveness and aquatic toxicity of six commercially available dispersants were tested using Azerbaijan crude oil, Caspian species and 12‰ seawater. Effectiveness for the dispersants tested with Chirag crude oil and Caspian seawater ranged from 72% to 86%, using USEPA’s baffled flask test method. Dispersant toxicities were in the ranges: diatom (Chaetoceros tenuissimus) 72 hr EC50 (effective concentrations inhibiting growth rate by 50%) 18 to >100 mg/l; copepod (Calanipeda aquae dulcis) 48 hr LC50 (effective concentration for immobilizing 50% test organisms) 12 to 49 mg/l; amphipod (Pontogammarus maeoticus) 48 hr LC50 concentration lethal to 50% test organisms) 50 to >100 mg/l. For dispersant use, the key toxicity concern is that of dispersed oil, not dispersant. Aquatic toxicity was determined for water-accommodated fractions (WAFs) of Chirag crude in Caspian seawater. Toxicity results for the WAFs were: diatom 72 hr EC50 >10,000 mg/l nominal; copepod 48 hr LC50 3.9 mg/l; amphipod 48 hr LC50 >15 mg/l. Chirag crude was mixed with dispersant at 20:1 oil:dispersant ratio and resulting WAFs were tested for toxicity. Results were: diatom 72 hr EC50 <18 to 208 mg/l nominal; copepod 48 hr LC50 2.1 to 37 mg/l; amphipod LC50 20 to 89 mg/l. Dispersant and dispersed oil toxicity for Caspian species are similar to published toxicity data for marine species tested at typical ocean salinity. Prolonged exposure (24 to 96 hrs.) to constant concentrations of dispersant or dispersed oil used in laboratory tests may overestimate potential field toxicity, where dilution and mixing can decrease concentrations to low ppm’s within hours of application. Dispersant use decisions for any Caspian Sea oil spills will focus on net environmental benefits of moving oil into the water column where it can be quickly diluted compared to potentially greater impacts from oil reaching nearshore environments.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Abbiss, T.P.; Little, D.I.; Baker, J.M.; Tibbetts, P.J.C. 1981. The fate and effects of dispersant-treated crude oil compared with untreated oil: sheltered intertidal sediments. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 16-18, 1981, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch Environmental Protection Service. pp. 401-443.

Abbot, F.S. 1983. Recent dispersant effectiveness test results. Spill Technology Newsletter, 8:5, 113-114. ISSN:0381-4459.

Abbot, F.S. 1983. A simple field effectiveness test for dispersants. Spill Technology Newsletter, 8:5, 97-98. ISSN:0381-4459.

Abbot, F.S. 1984. Guidelines on the use and acceptability of oil spill dispersants - 2nd edition. Spill Technology Newsletter, 9:1, 6-10. ISSN:0381-4459.

Abbot, R.A. 1972. Acceptability criteria and testing procedures for oil spill treating agents. Toronto, Ont.: Environment Ontario, Ministry of the Environment, Industrial Wastes Branch. 15p.

Abdallah, R.I.; Mohamed, S.Z.; Ahmed, F.M. 2005. Effect of biological and chemical dispersants on oil spills. Petroleum Science and Technology, 23:3-4, 463-474. ISSN:1091-6466. DOI:10.1081/LFT-200031065.
Abstract
The aim of this work is to study the effect of different types of chemical and biological dispersants used for crude oil spill treatment. The dispersing efficiency of the different dispersants on the crude oil was determined for selecting the most effective one. The basic properties of crude oil participating in the efficiency of dispersion process as viscosity, pour point, wax content, asphaltene content, resin content, etc. were determined. Also the nature of the different dispersants on the dispersing process, studied by FT-IR analysis, showed the presence of the same effective functional groups but in different ratios. The hydrocarbons types distribution of crude oil undispersed and undispersed parts were used as a marker for the degree of dispersion and/or biodegradation.The lowest values of undispersed saturate indicate the highest degree of dispersion or biodegradation. The lower normal alkanes are much more dispersed than the higher ones. The enzyme showed a moderate efficiency for dispersing crude oil, and this efficiency increased by increasing the time of contact with oil which lead to the dispersion of higher molecular weight normal alkanes.
© 2005, Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a725289213~db=all~order=page.

Abel, P.D. 1974. Toxicity of synthetic detergents to fish and aquatic invertebrates. Journal of Fish Biology, 6:3, 279-298. ISSN:0022-1112. DOI:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1974.tb04545.x.
Abstract
In a review of published research on toxicological effects of synthetic detergents, areas of consensus regarding exposure to marine organisms are illustrated. Acute toxicity occurs in fish exposed to concentrations between 0.4 and 40 mg/l. Gill damage is the most obvious trait, although internal effects that induce mortality are noted. Invertebrates at juvenile stages experience inhibited growth when exposed to concentrations below 0.1 mg/l. Sublethal exposure also effects invertebrate feeding behavior, inhibits chemoreceptor organs, and may lead to increased uptake of other pollutants. The influence of detergent/protein interaction on membrane permeability may be the source of the biological effects in organisms.

Acton, K. 1971. Effects of Oil Pollution and Dispersant Usage on the Marine Environment, with Reference to Pacific Northwest Areas. (no publishing information available). 51 leaves.

Adams, C.E. 1974. A Method for the Separation of Oil From an Aqueous Oil-Detergent Solution Prior to IR Analysis, Part 2. White Oak, Md.: Naval Ordinance Laboratory. 9p.
Abstract
This report presents additional work on an analytical method for the determination of oil in water solutions in the presence of dissolved detergents. A previous report describes a method for the removal of the oil by a silica-gel treatment and the subsequent analysis of the oil in a CCI4 extract using an IR spectrophotometer. The work covered by this report is concerned with testing and improving the analytical method and working out a standard operating procedure.
© CSA, 1976.

Adams, G.G.; Klerks, P.L.; Belanger, S.E.; Dantin, D. 1999. The effect of the oil dispersant Omni-Clean® on the toxicity of fuel oil no. 2 in two bioassays with the sheepshead minnow Cyprinodon variegatus. Chemosphere, 39:12, 2141-2157. ISSN:0045-6535. DOI:10.1016/S0045-6535(99)00135-6.
Abstract
Bioassays (7-day early life stage and 96 h acute bioassays) were conducted with the sheepshead minnow, Cyprinodon variegates, to determine the toxicity of the dispersant Omni-Clean® by itself and in combination with fuel oil no. 2. Performance characteristics of both bioassay types were also compared. Bioassays used oil by itself, dispersant by itself, and oil and dispersant in various ratios. Omni-Clean® was less toxic than many other dispersants, and had a relatively small effect on individual biomass. Toxicities of the oil/dispersant combinations were generally higher than expected from the toxicities of the oil and dispersant by themselves, indicating a more-than-additive effect on toxicity. The comparison of performance characteristics between the 7-day and the 96-hour bioassays showed that the early Life stage test is generally more sensitive, and has the added advantage of an additional and sensitive endpoint (fish biomass).
Reprinted from Chemosphere, Volume 39, G.G Adams, P.L. Klerks, S.E. Belanger, D. Dantin, Copyright 1999, with permission from Elsevier.

Addassi, Y.N.; Sowby, M.; Parker-Hall, H.; Robertson, W. 2005. Establishment of dispersant use zones in the state of California: a consensus approach for marine waters 3-200 nautical miles from shore. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 187-191. URL
Abstract
It has long been the policy of the National Response Team (NRT) that the appropriate use of dispersants as a first strike method of response to marine oil spills could greatly minimize the impacts of such spills. Beginning in early 2000, the Region IX Regional Response Team (RRT) evaluated the appropriateness of dispersant use for the State of California. In January 2001, the RRT signed into effect a dispersant use policy for the federal waters off the coast of California from 3200 nm offshore. These revisions to the Regional Contingency Plan provided a streamlined decision making process for dispersant use and designation of zone. Specifically, the plan called for each of the six local area committees to develop and forward recommendations for dispersant-use zone designations into one of three categories: pre-approval, pre-approval with consultation, or incident-specific RRT approval required. Each of the six local area committees utilized a modified Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) known as a Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) process to identify concerns and prioritize risk. Such an approach ensured consistency along the coast as well as provided a mechanism by which all points of view were considered. Utilizing a “what if” oil scenario, each on-water response option (no-response, dispersants, in situ burning, mechanical recovery) was evaluated for its ability to remove oil from the water surface and potential environmental impacts. A risk matrix allowed comparison between species and habitats. Participants were encouraged to share their concerns along with the key drivers for their response decisions, often allowing them to think outside their typical agency-centered framework. Based on seasonality and species of special concern, zones for dispersant use were designated as a means of providing protection to sensitive shorelines and on-water species. As of November 2002, the RRT has adopted Dispersant Use Zones for all designated off-shore waters. Current efforts are underway to incorporate the necessary dispersant planning information into the State and Federal Planning efforts. The response to the workshops was overwhelmingly positive. The NEBA/workshop approach facilitated the subsequent work undertaken by the U.S. Coast Guard and the RRT as in integral part of the implementation of the US-Mexico Agreement, further ensuring a coordinated bi-national oil spill response.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Addassi, Y.N.; Faurot-Daniels, E. 2005. California oil spill dispersant plan - achievement through cooperation. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 433-437. URL
Abstract
The use of dispersants in marine waters off California requires detailed foresight and planning. In an effort to expedite a decision to use dispersants and reduce first strike response time, the Region IX Regional Response Team tasked California’s Marine Area Committees to recommend dispersant approval zones. Each Area Committee conducted Net Environmental Benefit Analyses for their areas of responsibility, and from those analyses recommended dispersant zone designations to the U.S. Coast Guard and the Regional Response Team (RRT). All zone recommendations were approved by the RRT in July 2002, and development of the remaining elements of the dispersant plan began. Using primarily a model developed in NZ, the authors drafted a comprehensive dispersant use plan for the waters off California. The U.S. Coast Guard Captains of the Port in California reviewed the draft plan, and tested it during the April, 2004 Spill of National Significance (SONS) drill in southern California. The streamlined decision flowcharts, imbedded “decision boxes” and operational appendices with further instructions, forms and resource contact information, proved the California Dispersant Plan was a very intuitive and workable response decision tool. During the SONS drill, this greatly improved the ability of the Unified Command to make a decision regarding dispersant use, get the resources in place, and begin dispersant sorties within the operational “window” for dispersant use. It is expected that the same expedited and informed response process will serve California well during an actual oil spill response.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Ahsanullah, M.; Edwards, R.R.C.; Kay, D.G.; Negilski, D.S. 1982. Acute toxicity to the crab Paragrapsus quadridentatus (H. Milne Edwards), of Kuwait light crude oil, BP/AB dispersant, and an oil-dispersant mixture. Marine and Freshwater Research, 33:3, 459-464. ISSN:1323-1650. DOI:10.1071/MF9820459.
Abstract
The acute toxicity to P. quadridentatus, of Kuwait light crude oil, BP/AR dispersant and an oil-dispersant mixture was determined. Observed 96-h LC50 values averaged 1555 mg 1-1 for oil added to water. A statistically valid 96-h LC50 value for the dispersant was not obtained, but results indicated that a solution containing between 1300 and 2200 mg 1-1 might be expected to produce 50% mortality. A mixture of oil and dispersant in the ratio 4 : 1 gave an observed 96-h LC50 value of 96 mg 1-1, a 16-fold increase in toxicity over oil alone. The implications of the results are discussed.
Reprinted from Marine and Freshwater Research, Volume 33, M. Ahsanullah, R.R.C. Edwards, D.G. Kay, D.S. Negilski; Copyright 1982 CSIRO Publishing.

Aita, A.F. et al. 2003. Use of brine shrimp (Artemia) in dispersant toxicity tests: some caveats. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 327-330. URL
Abstract
Several Latin American countries currently use Artemia to evaluate the aquatic toxicity of dispersants. Test methods used to evaluate dispersant toxicity to Artemia are not uniform. The study reported here demonstrates how varying Artemia test conditions can significantly affect toxicity results for the dispersant Corexit® 9500. The type of seawater used in Artemia toxicity test affects 48 hour LC50 values for Corexit 9500 (lethal concentration for 50% of test organisms). Nominal LC50 values ranged from 35 to 147 ppm when natural seawater was used. Nominal LC50 values ranged from 29 to 39 ppm when a synthetic seawater prepared from Crystal Sea® Marinemix was used. Greater toxicity was observed when synthetic (reconstituted) seawater was prepared according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1987) Artemia dispersant test guideline. Observed nominal LC50 values ranged from 8.4 to 14 ppm. Age of the Artemia nauplii is another test variable that can significantly affect toxicity results. The 48 hour nauplii showed greater toxicity to Corexit 9500 than 24 hour oil nauplii. In tests using two types of synthetic seawater (Coral Reef Red Sea Salt® and Crystal Sea® Marinemix at 20 °C, 20 ppt salinity), nominal LC50 values ranged from 29 to 68 ppm for 24 hour old nauplii; 48 hour old nauplii had LC50 values ranging from 9 to 27 ppm. Greater toxicity was also observed in 48 hour nauplii under different salinity and temperature (Red Sea, 25 °C, 33 to 35 ppt salinity). The LC50 values were 33 and 1.6 ppm for 24 and 48 hour nauplii respectively.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Akesson, B. 1975. Bioassay studies with polychaetes of the genus Ophryotrocha as test animals. In Koeman, J.H.; Strik, J.J.T.W.A. (eds.). Sublethal Effects of Toxic Chemicals on Aquatic Animals: Proceedings of the Swedish-Netherlands Symposium, Wageningen, The Netherlands, September 2-5, 1975. New York: Elsevier Scientific. pp. 121–135. ISBN:0444413995.
Abstract
The biological effects of oil dispersants, phenol, and waste water from 2 sulfate pulp mill have been studied. 2 Ophyrotrocha spp (O. labronica and O. diadema) and the archiannelid Dinophilus gyrociliatus have been employed as test animals. These small organisms are easily cultivated in the laboratory and all stages of the life cycle are available throughout the yr. The experimental design and the results are discussed.
© CSA, 1976.

Akintonwa, A.; Ebere, A.G. 1990. Toxicity of Nigerian crude oil and chemical dispersants to Barbus Sp. and Clarias Sp. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 45:5, 729-733. ISSN:0007-4861. DOI:10.1007/BF01700993.
Abstract
During an oil-spill, several contingency arrangements are made to limit environmental damages by the spilled oil. An acceptable method is the use of chemical dispersants which break up the oil slick into oil in water emulsions. These chemicals are widely used in our riverine areas during routine cleaning of oil spillage with little regards to their ecological impact on the environment. In order to assess the impact of oil spillage and several chemicals used in the cleaning operation, it was though necessary to study the toxicity of crude oil and chemical dispersant alone and when both are used in combinations. The present study also reports the potentiation of toxicity of crude oil by two chemical dispersants (Teepol and Conco-k) on Barbus fingerlings and Clarias eggs obtained from local fish ponds (Nigeria).
© CSA, 1990.

Alaska Regional Response Team Dispersant Working Group. 1991. Alaska RRT Dispersant Workshop Feb. 5-7, 1991 Anchorage: Prince William Sound Scenario. Anchorage, Ak.: Alaska Regional Response Team Dispersant Working Group. 208p.

Alaska. Oil Spill Response Center. 1990. Corexit 9580: Report and Recommendations. Juneau, Ak.: Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Oil Spill Response Center. 11p.

Albers, P.H. 1979. Effects of Corexit 9527 on the hatchability of mallard eggs. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 23:4-5, 661-668. ISSN:0007-4861. DOI:10.1007/BF01770022.
Abstract
Oil, Corexit 9527, and mixtures of oil/Corexit at a 5:1 ratio were applied to mallard embryos to determine pollutant effects on hatching success and weight of hatchlings. Corexit/oil mixtures negatively affected hatching success, suggesting that the dispersant speeded the lethal effect of the oil. Corexit/oil mixtures also had an impact of hatchling weight when compared to those exposed to oil or dispersant alone.

Albers, P.H.; Gay, M.L. 1982. Effects of a chemical dispersant and crude oil on breeding ducks. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 29:4, 404-411. ISSN:0007-4861. DOI:10.1007/BF01605603.
Abstract
A widely used chemical oil dispersant, Corexit 9527 (Exxon Chemical Company U.S.A.), when applied to the egg shell in small amounts (5 and 20 mu l), is as toxic to mallard (Anas platyrhynchos ) embryos as crude oil itself. However, nothing is known about the effects of oil chemically dispersed in water on bird eggs or on the nesting behavior of breeding birds; nor is it known if dispersants can keep oil from adhering to birds. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Corexit 9527 and crude oil sprayed with Corexit 9527 on breeding mallard ducks.
© CSA, 1982.

Albers, P.H. 1984. Effects of oil and dispersants on birds. In Proceedings of the 1984 Region 9 Oil Dispersants Workshop, 7-9 February, 1984, Santa Barbara, California. (no publishing information available). pp. 101-110.

Albers, P.H. 1979. Oil dispersants and wildlife. In Brown, C.H. (ed.). Proceedings of the 1979 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Pollution Response Workshop, 8-10 May 1979, St. Petersburg, Florida. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Contaminant Evaluation Program, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. pp. 67-72.

Albone, D.J.; Kinnlewhite, M.G.; Sansom, L.E.; Morris, P.R. 1989. The Storage Stability of Oil Spill Dispersants. Stevenage, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory. 40p. ISBN:0856245305.

Allen, A.A. 1986. Alaska clean seas development of a chemical application manual. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 563-580. ISBN:0662148126.

Allen, A.A.; Dale, D.H. 1995. Dispersant mission planner: a computerized model for the application of chemical dispersants on oil spills. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 393-414.

Allen, T.E. 1985. New concepts in spraying dispersants from boats. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 3-6.
Abstract
A new approach to applying chemical dispersants from boats has been developed. The equipment has a greater swath width and, thus, greater coverage rates than existing technology. Coverage rates of 2½ square miles per day per boat are likely and four or more square miles per day is possible. The method utilizes high speed fans which create a focused air stream with maximum velocities of 90 miles per hour. Dispersant is injected into and propelled by the air stream. With the air stream acting as a carrier for the dispersant, the spraying of smaller volumes of concentrate dispersant or dilute dispersant over a wide swath width is made possible. The focused air stream and dispersant impacts the water surface in approximately a straight line. The water surface is gently agitated by the air stream and liquid impact. A dispersant fan sprayer has been built and tested statically on land and demonstrated offshore on a supply vessel while spraying water. Design parameters include fan size, air stream velocity, expected swath width, and concentrate (low volume) versus dilute (large volume) spraying.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Allen, T.E. 1978. Apparatus for application of chemical dispersants in an open sea. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 266-276. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
A chemical dispersant spraying system for use on seagoing workboats has been developed. Using two spray booms, the system can spray a path up to 60 ft. wide at a speed of 8 knots, thus covering approximately 67 acres per hour. The design is based on the use of “self-mix surfactant,” which requires little mixing energy for effective dispersion of the oil slick. Three of these systems have been completed for Clean Atlantic Associates, an oil spill cleanup cooperative. The system is made up of an apparatus for deploying and supporting two 30 ft spray booms, a 45 hp pump skid for pumping a mixture of seawater and dispersant, and a Marine Portable 500 gal tankage for storing the dispersants. The spray apparatus is designed to be attached to the bow of the boat. This allows the boom to spray the mixture of seawater and dispersant ahead of the bow wake. Subsequent mixing energy is provided by the bow wake. When not using a self-mix dispersant, additional mixing energy can be provided by breaker boards; however, these are not included in the system. Seawater is drawn from an overboard suction line, proportioned with the chemical dispersant at a typical ratio of 33 to 1, and pumped at a high pressure (90 to 100 psi) through fan-type nozzles. The entire system is readily adaptable to various sizes and shapes of vessels, and operates independently of the vessel to which it is mounted.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Al-Mazidi, S.M.; Samhan, O. 1987. Oil spill incidents and dispersant applications in Kuwait. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 247-253.
Abstract
Since the discovery of oil in Kuwait, most oil-related activities have been located along the coastline 50 km south of Kuwait City. Other related industrial activities have been developed in this area apart from oil and petroleum products export in order to diversify the national sources of income. For these reasons, the potential for large oil spills in Kuwait’s marine environment is highest along the south coast, where oil refineries and exporting facilities are located. An average of 219 barrels of oil were spilled annually between 1979 and 1985, and 2,100 gallons of dispersants were used in cleanup operations. The majority of incidents involved less than 5 barrels of oil and 500 gallons of dispersants. Incidents involving more than 100 barrels of oil and 5,000 gallons of dispersants were confined to the Sea Island and Mina Al-Ahmadi North and South Piers. This distribution undoubtedly affects the concentration of petroleum residues in various components of the marine environment, resulting in an increase in tar ball density along this coast, reaching a maximum at Ras Az-Zor, and significantly higher levels of vanadium and petroleum hydrocarbons in sediments and oysters collected south of Mina Al-Ahmadi. The objective of this paper is to report on the number, volume, and frequency distribution of oil spill incidents in Kuwait and the usage of dispersants in cleanup operations. Vandium and petroleum hydrocarbons concentrations also are described as the sensitivity of the southern coastal environment to oil spills. Recommendations have been made on how to conduct cleanup operations for any future oil spill incidents along the southern shoreline of Kuwait.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Alpine Geophysical Associates. 1971. Oil Pollution Incident, Platform Charlie, Main Pass Block 41 Field, Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office. 134p.

Al-Sabagh , A.M.; El-Hamouly, S.H.; Atta, A.M.; El-Din, M.R.N.; Gabr, M.M. 2007. Synthesis of some oil spill dispersants based on sorbitol esters and their capability to disperse crude oil on seawater to alleviate its accumulation and environmental impact. Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 28:5, 661-670. ISSN:0193-2691. DOI:10.1080/01932690701341751.
Abstract
In this respect mono-, di-, and tri- sorbitol oleate esters [SMO, SDO, and STO] were prepared and then ethoxylated using ethylene oxide to obtain six sorbitol esters at different ethylene oxide content (e.o=5, 12, 15, 20, 35, and 45). They were tested as oil spill dispersants individually and in blends. From the obtained data, it was found that the blends are more effective than the corresponding individual surfactants. The maximum dispersion capability for the prepared surfactants was obtained at HLB range from 9 to 11 for the both individual surfactants and blends. The increase of total carbon number in the surfactant alkyl group leads to increase dispersion capability of the dispersant. The wide range of ethylene oxide content was used, but the maximum dispersion efficiency was obtained at ethylene oxide=20 in E(20)STO. Meanwhile, the dispersion capability increases when the interfacial tension decreases.
© 2007, Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a779375035~db=all~order=page.

Al-Sabagh, A.M.; Atta, A.M. 1999. Water-based non-ionic polymeric surfactants as oil spill dispersants. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 74:11, 1075-1081. ISSN:0268-2575. DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199911)74:11<1075::AID-JCTB125>3.0.CO;2-3.

Alzieu, C. 1972. Choice of products for use against the pollution of the marine environment by oil spills. III. Relative toxicity of antipetroleum products on two marine organisms. Revue des Travaux de l'Institut des Pêches Maritimes, 36:1, 103-119. ISSN:0035-2276.
Abstract
The necessity to combat oil slicks makes it necessary to assess the relative effectiveness and toxicity of dispersal agents used. This is usually done by using individual or groups of indicator organisms. The theory behind the various approaches is outlined, and some considerations are listed for the choice of technique. 2 organisms were chosen - the Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea), and the phytoplankton alga Phaeodactylum tricornutum Bohlin, on which if feeds - and the oyster closing reaction, and level of inhibition of growth under the influence of irritant products was measured. Methods are described, and the results shown for emulsifying, agglomerating and precipitating products. The results are discussed, and the mode of interference of the products suggested. Products were allotted a 'coefficient of effectiveness', and one emulsifier, 5 agglomerants and 4 precipitants are concluded to be of use. It is noted that they may have different effects on other species.
© CSA, 1973.

America North, Inc. 1990. Disk Island Shoreline Treatment Study Using COREXIT 9580: Chemical Fate of Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Florham Park, N.J.: Exxon Research and Engineering Company. 82 leaves.

American Petroleum Institute. 1985. Oil Spill Response: Options for Minimizing Adverse Ecological Impacts. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. 98p. ISBN:0893640549.

American Petroleum Institute. 1987. Developing Criteria for Advance Planning for Dispersant Use. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. 42p.

Anderlini, V.C. et al. 1981. Distribution of hydrocarbons in the oyster, Pinctada margaratifera, along the coast of Kuwait. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 12:2, 57-62. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(81)90261-7.
Abstract
Concentrations of total hydrocarbons within the boiling point range of the alkanes n-C14 and n-C32 were determined in oysters, Pinctada margaratifera, from coastal waters of Kuwait. Levels of petroleum-derived hydrocarbons were highest in an area adjacent to the major oil loading facilities. Whether the use of dispersants to treat minor spills increases levels of incorporation of petroleum compounds into the food webs could not be concluded from the data of this study. Levels of total petroleum-type hydrocarbons in the oysters at this site were equivalent to those in mussels, Mytilus sp., from harbours, bays and urban coastal areas of California. The Kuwaiti oysters lacked a C28 pentacyclic triterpane that was present in extracts of mussels from southern California that had been recently exposed to a minor spill or to a natural seepage. Levels of DDE and PCB were comparable to those in relatively unpolluted areas of North America.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 12, V.C. Anderlini, L. Al-Harmi, B.W. De Lappe, R.W. Risebrough, W. Walker, II, B.R.T. Simoneit, A.S. Newton, Copyright 1981, with permission from Elsevier.

Andersen, J.; Brottfos, B.; Ly, J. 2000. The nature of the spillage problem for oils and chemicals. In Interspill 2000 International Conference and Exhibition. A New Millennium - a New Approach to Spill Response: Spill on Water Surfaces, Shoreline and Inland; Brighton, UK, 28-30 November 2000. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 61-85. ISBN:0852933177.

Anderson, J.W. 1989. Toxicity of dispersants and dispersed oil for marine animals. In Duke, T.W.; Petrazzuolo, G. (eds.). Oil and Dispersant Toxicity Testing: Proceedings of a Workshop on Technical Specifications held in New Orleans, January 17-19, 1989. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office. pp. 85-88.

Anderson, J.W.; McQuerry, D.L.; Kiesser, S.L. 1985. Laboratory evaluation of chemical dispersants for use on oil spills at sea. Environmental Science and Technology, 19:5, 454-457. ISSN:0013-936X. DOI:10.1021/es00135a012.
Abstract
Data on toxicity and effectiveness of 14 chemical dispersants were combined in a straightforward equation to provide an overall assessment of the relative merits of the oil spill chemicals. When a decision is made by regional response authorities to mitigate the damage of spilled oil to the shoreline, our findings should aid in the selection of an effective low toxicity product. Products were evaluated by using standard toxicity tests with a mysid shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia) and a standard effectiveness test using the Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman (MNS) apparatus. Ratios of dispersant to oil required to maintain 90% dispersions of oil in seawater (15 °C and 30%) with a standard mixing energy (1.0 in. of water pressure) of air flow were derived for each chemical by using Prudhoe Bay crude oil. Toxicity tests with M. bahia were conducted at 25 °C and 25% by using freshly hatched juveniles (15 per concentration times 5 concentrations) in small dishes in an incubator.
Reproduced with permission from Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 19, J.W. Anderson, D.L. McQuerry, S.L. Kiesser. Copyright 1985 American Chemical Society.

Anderson, J.W.; Kiesser, S.L.; Bean, R.M.; Riley, R.G.; Thomas, B.L. 1981. Toxicity of chemically dispersed oil to shrimp exposed to constant and decreasing concentrations in a flowing system. In Proceedings: 1981 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, Georgia. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 69-75.
Abstract
The shrimp Pandalus danae was exposed, in a flowing system, to a water extract of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and to chemically dispersed dilutions of this oil. Mortality produced over a period of 10 hours to 9 days was followed to the point of 50 percent survival in each tank. The product of time to 50 percent mortality (in days) and the measured concentration (in parts per million (ppm)) in each tank was used to describe the toxicity of the solutions. This toxicity index (ppm-days) was 4.5 times higher in the winter and fall than in spring and summer tests with the same oil extract. In the warmer months, when shrimp were more sensitive, oil dispersed with chemicals was about half as toxic as the seawater extract of the oil. Differences in the concentrations of specific petroleum hydrocarbons in the seawater extract and the chemically dispersed oil aid in explaining the toxicity observed. Toxic aromatics represent 98 percent of the extract but only 67 percent of the dispersed oil since the latter is enriched with droplets of oil containing 33 percent saturated and other insoluble components. Linear dilution of dispersed oil to zero in 26 hours resulted in toxicity indices quite similar to those produced in constant exposure.
© 1981 with permission from API.

Anderson, J.W.; Kiesser, S.L.; McQuerry, D.L.; Riley, R.G.; Fleischmann, M.L. 1984. Toxicity testing with constant or decreasing concentrations of chemically dispersed oil. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 14-22. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
An exposure system and method of quantifying toxicity were developed to provide an estimate of the effects of dispersed oil on marine organisms under a variety of exposure conditions. Results of constant concentration exposures (for hours or days) can be compared to those of diluting exposures (decreasing to zero in 8 or 24 h) on a basis of the “toxicity index.” This index is equal to the total exposure when time in hours or days is multiplied by the concentration at each hour (ppm·hr) or ppm·days). Tests have been conducted with shrimp (Pandulus danae), two oils (Prudhoe Bay crude and a light Arabian crude), and two dispersants. There is a seasonal pattern to the tolerance of the shrimp. Tests in the colder months (fall/winter) produce toxicity indices approximately three times higher than summer/spring values. Testing shrimp with Prudhoe Bay crude oil and a chemical dispersant during the fall/winter season, we found constant and 24-h dilution exposures produced toxicity indices of 11 (±1.1 standard error) and 10 (±0.6 standard error) ppm·days, respectively. During the fall/winter season (greatest tolerance), tests with Prudhoe Bay crude and two different chemical dispersants produced toxicity indices for P. danae of 10 (±0.6) and 12 (±1.1) ppm·days. During tests in summer, there was also little difference observed when the toxicity of the light Arabian oil was compared to that of Prudhoe Bay crude (2.3 and 3.4 ppm·days, respectively). The usefulness of our methods is that in addition to the comparisons already noted, it is possible to predict the outcome of dispersant application under varying environmental conditions.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Anderson, J.W.; Vanderhorst, J.R.; Kiesser, S.L.; Fleischmann, M.L.; Fellingham, G.W. 1984. Recommended methods for testing the fate and effects of dispersed oil in marine sediments. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 224-238. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
Tests have been conducted to determine the extent of dispersed oil sorption on sediments and retention of this association when seawater is flushed through the substrate. Sediment beds were prepared where dispersed oil in seawater was allowed to percolate down through the sand. Water concentrations of dispersed oil were determined before and after percolation. Distribution of oil in sediments was shown to be very patchy and not suitable for quantitating effects on benthic species. Eighty-three percent of the oil remained in the top 3 cm during this process. Additional tests in special cores showed that sediments containing dispersed oil would release about 40% of the oil when seawater flowed from the bottom of the core up through the bed of sand. Based on the fact that most of the dispersed oil is held in the 3 cm of substrate when water is drained completely through the sediment, it is recommended that exposure systems be designed with a layer (2 to 3 cm) of contaminated substrate on top of clean sediment. Fiberglass trays (with mesh bottoms) were prepared in this manner and exposures initiated in both subtidal and intertidal areas in Sequim Bay, Washington. The alterations in hydrocarbon component composition during the exposure periods will be described. Biological responses measured in these studies were the growth of small clams and the recruitment of multiple benthic species.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Anderson, J.W.; Kiesser, S.L.; McQuerry, D.L.; Fellingham, G.W. 1985. Effects of oil and chemically dispersed oil in sediments on clams. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 349-353.
Abstract
Several field experiments with natural sediments in the intertidal zone were conducted over a two-year period to compare the effects of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and this same oil dispersed with Corexit® 9527 (1 part Corexit to 10 parts oil). The clams used were Protothaca staminea and Macoma inquinata. Exposure periods ranged from one to six months. In a one-month exposure to about 2,000 parts per million (ppm) total oil in sediments, survival of P. staminea was two to three times greater than that of M. inquinata, and both species exhibited lower tolerance to oil alone in sediment than dispersed oil at the same concentration. Dispersed oil in this 30-day exposure also produced a decrease (compared to field controls) in the concentration of some of the free amino acids in the tissues of M. inquinata. Four- and six-month field exposures of small P. staminea to sediment containing oil or dispersed oil (about 2,000 ppm) reduced growth in both oil treatments (four-month exposure) or in just the chemically dispersed oil treatment (six-month exposure). In the latter experiment initial petroleum concentrations in the surface sediments (top 3 centimeters) were higher (about 3,000 ppm) for the dispersed oil than for oil alone. Surface layers in both conditions were free of contamination (down to 6 cm) after six months.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Anderson, J.W.; Riley, R.; Kiesser, S.; Gurtisen, J. 1987. Toxicity of dispersed and undispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil fractions to shrimp and fish. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 235-240.
Abstract
Many previous studies of oil toxicity used high oil concentrations and water soluble fractions (WSF). The aim of this study was to approximate field conditions, in which weathering and chemical dispersions reduce the volatile fractions of spilled crude oil. The objective was to determine the extent of toxicity reduction produced by decreased concentrations of monoaromatics and diaromatics. The study measured the relative toxicity of fresh Prudhoe Bay crude (PBC) oil and two distillation fractions (Stage I and Stage II) and their chemical dispersions to the shrimp Pandalus danae and the fish Ammodytes hexapterus (sand lance). The hydrocarbon composition of three oils, the WSF of the oils, and the chemical dispersions were measured. Distillation of fresh PBC oil produced a State I oil containing very low amounts of monaromatics (benzene and alkylbenzenes) but with the diaromatics relatively unchanged. Further distillation produced a State II oil which contained only higher molecular weight aromatics of three rings (phenanthrenes) and greater. Saturate hydrocarbons with corresponding boiling points also were removed. Bioassays on shrimp with dispersed oils showed that the removal of monoaromatics (State I) reduced toxicity about sevenfold. The WSF of Stage I oil and both WSF and dispersions of Stage II oil were not toxic to shrimp. Toxicity from fresh PBC oil WSF and dispersions was likely the result of the combination of monoaromatic and diaromatic compounds. Sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus) mortality did not correlate with the aromatic content of the oils, but appeared to be affected by dispersed oil droplets of all three oils to about the same degree. The fish were more resistant to dispersed oil than the shrimp (higher toxicity index). However, when latent mortality is considered, the data show that the fish may be more sensitive than shrimp to dispersed oil.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Anderson, J.W.; Neff, J.M.; Cox, B.A.; Hightower, G.M. 1974. Characteristics of dispersions and water-soluble extracts of crude and refined oils and their toxicity to estuarine crustaceans and fish. Marine Biology, 27:1, 75-88. ISSN:0025-3162. DOI:10.1007/BF00394763.
Abstract
Four oils (South Louisiana crude, Kuwait crude, No. 2 fuel oil and bunker C residual oil) were tested to establish qualitative hydrocarbon fractions and behavior in seawater either as water-soluble fractions or as oil-in-water dispersions. Water-soluble fractions showed more light aliphatics and single-ring aromatics in composition, while refined oils had higher concentrations of naphthalenes in oil-in-water dispersions. In exposure experiments using six test species, the water-soluble fractions and oil-in-water dispersions of refined oils were more toxic than the crude oils tested. The species were ranked from least sensitive to most sensitive: Cyprinodon variegates, Menidia beryllina, Fundulus similes, Penaeus aztecus ipostlarvae, Palaemonetes pugio and Mysidopsis almyra.

Anderson, J.W.; Kiesser, S.L.; Bean, R.M.; Riley, R.G.; Thomas, B.L. 1980. Toxicity of chemically dispersed oil to shrimp exposed to constant and decreasing concentrations in a flowing system. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar: June 3-5, 1980, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 190-206.

Anon. 1990. The storage stability of oil spill dispersants. Petroleum Review, 44:516, 42-44. ISSN:0020-3076.

Anon. 1984. Dispersants: changing perceptions. Oil Spill Intelligence Report, VIII:29, 1-3. ISSN:0020-3076.

Anon. 1970. Using chemicals for cleaning up oil spills. Ocean Industry, 5:8, 35-40. ISSN:0029-8026.
Abstract
For each of the following methods which employ chemicals to clean up oil spills in ocean, lake, and river waters, the process is explained and available products are described--sorbants, dispersants, oxidation and biodegradation, and jelling and polymerization. The Federal Water Quality Administration policy on the use of chemicals to treat floating oils is given.

Anon. 1974. Clearance of oil pollution. Oil Pollution Newsletter. Number 5. Stevenage, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory. 32p.

Anon. 1977. Use of dispersants at sea. Pollution Monitor, no.35:(no page information available). ISSN:0308-5414.

Anon. 1979. Effect of surfactants on the food consumption in the larvae of Penaeus monodon and Chanos chanos. Academia Sinica Institute of Zoology Monograph Series, 1979:5, 26-29. ISSN:1026-3810.

Anon. 1979. Studies on the growth effect of surfactants in the larvae of Penaeus monodon and Chanos chanos. Academia Sinica Institute of Zoology Monograph Series, 1979:5, 38-43. ISSN:1026-3810.

Anon. 1979. Toxicity of surfactants to some marine animals. Academia Sinica Institute of Zoology Monograph Series, 1979:5, 19-25. ISSN:1026-3810.

Anon. 1984. Oil and Dispersant Toxicity in Seabirds (Phases I & II). Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. (no page information available).

Anon. 1978. Study of Dispersant Application in the Atlantic Provinces. Halifax, N.S.: Martec Limited. 246 leaves.

Anon. 2005. News: Oil spill off Goa Coast. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 50:6, 613-614. ISSN:0025-326X.

Anon. 1990. Analysis technique enhances oil spill response optimization. Offshore, 50:9, 34-35,37-38. ISSN:0030-0608.

Anon. 2000. News upstream: industry - aerial alliance for North Sea oil spill response. Petroleum Review, 54:646, 7. ISSN:0020-3076.
Abstract
This article reports on an alliance that would combine aerial dispersant with aerial surveillance in a rapid response counter to oil spills in the North Sea. Later improvements would be smaller, faster aircraft for improving response time.

Anon. 2006. 'On command' surfactants could aid oil recovery and clean-up. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 52:10, 1123-1124. ISSN:0025-326X.

Anon. 1993. Improved new generation dispersants play an important role in oil spill combat plans. Petroleum Gazette (Melbourne), 28:2, 29-32. ISSN:0048-3591.

Anon. 1990. Cleaning up mess at sea. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 10:2, 153. ISSN:0253-7141.

Ünsal, M. 1991. Comparative toxicity of crude oil, dispersant and oil- dispersant mixture to prawn, Palaemon elegans. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 31-32:451-459. ISSN:0277-2248.
Abstract
Researchers tested crude oil, dispersant, and oil/dispersant mixtures on Palaemon elegans to determine lethal and sublethal thresholds on the species. Results of 24 h tests indicate that the dispersant was the most toxic substance, and the oil/dispersant mixture was also significantly toxic to the species.

Aquatic Testing Laboratories. 1994. Abalone Larval Development Short Term Toxicity Test for Oil Spill Cleanup Agents. Ventura, Ca.: Aquatic Testing Laboratories. (no page information available).

Araujo, R.P. de A.; Momo, K.; Gherardi-Goldstein, E.; Nipper, M.G.; Wells, P.G. 1987. Marine dispersant program for licensing and research in São Paulo State, Brazil. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 289-292.
Abstract
The State of São Paulo has established a program for research on and for licensing of chemical dispersants. The basic factors adopted for evaluation and approval of these products were their composition, efficiency (or effectiveness) and toxicity. Various methods for evaluation have been tested; the Warren Spring method was chosen due to its greater repeatability, rapidity, and lower cost. The U.S. EPA toxicity evaluation procedure with Artemia nauplii was chosen for licensing the products, due to its relative simplicity and repeatability. (A new assay procedure, intended to replace the Artemia test, was initiated with a regional shrimp and is progressing as a research program.) A linked composition/efficiency/toxicity licensing procedure has been developed.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Arthur D. Little, Inc. 1970. Oil Spill Treating Agents Selection Based on Environmental Factors. Cambridge, Ma.: Arthur D. Little, Inc. 55p.

Arthur D. Little, Inc. 1969. Combating Pollution Created by Oil Spills. Volume One: Methods. Cambridge, Ma.: Arthur D. Little, Inc. 151p.

Arthur, D.R. 1968. The biological problems of littoral pollution by oils and emulsifiers - a summing up. In Carthy, J.D.; Arthur, R. (eds.). The Biological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium held at the Orielton Field Centre, Pembroke, Wales, on 17th, 18th and 19th February 1968. Field Studies, 2(Suppl.). London: Field Studies Council. pp. 159-164.

Asia - Pacific Applied Science Associates et al. 2003. A Review of Recent Innovations and Current Research In Oil and Chemical Spill Technology. West Perth, W.A.: Asia - Pacific Applied Science Associates. 77p. URL

Atlas R.M.; Bartha R. 1973. Effects of some commercial oil herders, dispersants, and bacterial inocula on biodegradation of oil in seawater. In Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Georgia State University, December 4-6, 1972. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University. pp. 283-289.
Abstract
The effects of petroleum biodegradation of several oil herders, dispersants and commercial bacterial inocula were tested. The oil herders and dispersants significantly increased the rate of mineralization but not the extent of petroleum biodegradation. The beneficial effect is apparently due to the increased surface of oil droplets and an absence of toxicity to oil degrading microorganisms at the recommended concentrations. The two commercial bacterial inocula tested failed to improve either the rate or the extent of oil biodegradation when tested in natural seawater. In sterile seawater, these inocula showed inferior performance compared to the natural microflora of seawater, and were judged to be ineffective for marine applications. Data on the safety and effectiveness of available oil pollution control products are basic to their correct use. While numerous studies have been conducted on the toxicity of such products to vertebrates and invertebrates, little is known about their effects on the indigenous microflora of the sea. Since microbial degradation is the major natural process for the ultimate destruction of polluting oil, it is essential that this process not be interfered. The recommended concentrations of two oil herders, six dispersants and two bacterial inocula were tested for their effects on the biodegradation of Sweden crude oil in freshly collected seawater samples.
(Author’s abstract).

Atta, A.M.; Abdel-Rauf, M.E.; Maysour, N.E.; Abdul-Rahiem, A.M.; Abdel-Azim, A.A.A. 2006. Surfactants from recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate) waste as water based oil spill dispersants. Journal of Polymer Research, 13:1, 39-52. ISSN:1022-9760. DOI:10.1007/s10965-005-9003-0.
Abstract
Recycled poly (ethylene terephthalate), PET, can be modified to produce nonionic surfactants. Recycling of PET waste was carried out in presence of different weight ratios of diethanolamine and triethanolamine and manganese acetate as catalyst. The molecular weights of the prepared oligomers were calculated from hydroxyl number and determined from GPC measurements. The produced oligomers were reacted with polyethylene glycol, PEG, which have different molecular weights 400, 1000 and 4000. Interfacial tension and the effectiveness in oil dispersion of the synthesized surfactants were reported. It was found that, the maximum efficiency of oil spill dispersants was reached to maximum when the surfactant molecules ended with two PEG 1000 moities.
© Springer, 2006. Reproduced with kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Auger, C.; Croquette, J. 1980. L’utilisation des dispersants. Bulletin du Cedre, n°1:7-12.

Aunaas, T.; Zachariassen, K.E. 1989. Biological Effects of Chemical Treatment of Oil-Spills at Sea. Trondheim, Norway: University of Trondheim, Department of Zoology and Department of Chemistry. 330p. ISBN:8259557096.

Aunaas, T.; Olsen, A.; Zachariassen, K.E. 1991. The effects of oil and oil dispersants on the amphipod Gammarus oceanicus from Arctic waters. Polar Research, 10:2, 619-630. ISSN:0800-0395.
Abstract
Finasol OSR-5 and OSR-12 were chosen, along with Statfjord A + B crude oil, to determine exposure effects of oil, dispersant, and combinations on a species of amphipod. Reduced mortality in amphipods resulted when Finasol OSR-5 was added to the crude oil, compared to exposure to the water soluble fraction and water emulsion of crude oil alone.

Aurand, D. 1995. The application of ecological risk assessment principles to dispersant use planning. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 2:4, 241-247. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(96)00005-9.
Abstract
Authors suggest a methodology for using ecological risk assessment procedures in the oil spill response planning process, which would improve the ability to evaluate response options, including the use of dispersants.

Aurand, D. 1995. Research program to facilitate resolution of ecological issues affecting the use of dispersants in marine oil spill response. In Lane, P. (ed.). The Use of Chemicals in Oil Spill Response. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 172-190. ISBN:0803119992.
Abstract
The use of dispersants in oil spill response in the United States remains a controversial environmental topic. At the center of this controversy is a lack of confidence in the available data to evaluate the effects of dispersants on “local” biota. The main reasons that many of the attempts around the country to resolve concerns over dispersant use have been unsuccessful are that they have either 1.) failed to focus on the true issues of concern, 2.) collected laboratory (and sometimes field) data which cannot be effectively applied in decision-making, or 3.) failed to effectively communicate information to the participants in the decision process. These issues can be addressed by a research program intentionally designed to examine issues in an ecosystem context and which focuses on information dissemination and communication, which are the central themes of the Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC) initiative. The MSRC environmental program contains four elements: improved use and synthesis of existing information, improved methods for laboratory toxicity evaluations and interpretation, development of a realistic mesocosm testing program, and field experiments to correlate laboratory and mesocosm data to real world situations. This paper describes the rationale for the program and the progress made over the first two and one-half years.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, G.M. 1995. Using toxicity data in oil spill response planning. In The Use of Chemical Countermeasure Product Data for Oil Spill Planning and Response: Workshop Proceedings, April 4-6, 1995, Xerox Document University and Conference Center, Leesburg, VA. Volume 2. Alexandria, Va.: Scientific and Environmental Associates. pp. 21-46.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, G.M. 1996. Proceedings of the Fourth Meeting of the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum: Santa Cruz, CA, April 24-25, 1996. Purcellville, Va.: Ecosystem Management & Associates. 50p.

Aurand, D. 1998. Observations on the integration of laboratory, mesocosm and field research on the ecological consequences of dispersant use for marine oil spills into response planning. In Dispersant Application in Alaska: A Technical Update, Anchorage Hilton Hotel, Anchorage, Alaska, March 18 and 19, 1998. Cordova, Ak.: Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute. pp. 215-248.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, O. 1999. Using laboratory, mesocosm and field data in ecological risk assessments for nearshore dispersant use. In Beyond 2000, Balancing Perspectives: Proceedings: 1999 International Oil Spill Conference: March 8-11, 1999, Seattle, Washington. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1023-1026. URL
Abstract
In the United States, pre-approval for dispersant use exists only in conservatively defined circumstances of water depth and/or distance off shore. Historical records suggest that most opportunities for dispersant use will occur closer to shore and in shallow water than defined in existing pre-approval areas. The issue is to determine when it is appropriate to relax these standards in order to protect sensitive near-shore habitats, despite the potential for increased ecological effects in the water column. This paper reviews selected data in the context of Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) protocols. In some cases onshore impacts are clearly decreased by dispersant use without adversely affecting the water column. This is especially true for small or moderate-sized spills, often not viewed as a high priority for dispersant use. In other cases, however, trade-off decisions must be made, and when the ERA approach is properly integrated into oil spill response process, it can improve the likelihood of proper use of dispersants, and assist in the identification of appropriate dispersant response capabilities.
© 1999 with permission from API.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, O.; Clark, J.; Bragin, G. 1999. Goals, objectives and design of a mesocosm experiment on the environmental consequences of nearshore dispersant use. In Proceedings: Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 2 to 4, 1999, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 629-643.
Abstract
A mesocosm experiment on nearshore dispersant use compared results of water column and shoreline exposure to crude oil and dispersed oil. Fate and ecological effects were determined in 10-day experiments. The use of multiple tanks housed at the Coastal Oilspill Simulation System Facility in Corpus Christi, Texas, allowed for simultaneous tests and provided the opportunity for replicate treatments and untreated controls during testing.

Aurand, D.; Kucklick, J.H. 1995. Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the Chemical Response to Oil Spills, Ecological Effects Research Forum: East Millstone, N.J., September 13-14, 1995. Washington, D.C.: arine Spill Response Corporation. 66p.

Aurand, D.; Walko, L.; Pond, R. 2000. Developing Consensus Ecological Risk Assessments: Environmental Protection in Oil Spill Response Planning: A Guidebook. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Coast Guard. (no page information available).

Aurand, D.; Clark, J.; Jamail, R. 2003. Learnings from the Texas Nearshore Dispersant Demonstration Project. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 341-348. URL
Abstract
This project defines circumstances where a dispersant demonstration might be considered for an estuarine oil spill in Texas. In seeking approval for a spill of opportunity demonstration project, we developed criteria defining a viable dispersant response for consideration by the Region VI Regional Response Team. This paper presents the criteria and their rationale developed for Galveston Bay and Corpus Christi Bay, along with the results of recent training exercises. The criteria define the size and general location of an oil spill that might be considered appropriate for a trial dispersant application, and implementation of response and monitoring within a 2-hour window from notification. They are based on descriptions and characterizations of the habitats and species at risk in coastal areas, concentration and duration of dispersed oil plumes that might be generation in a response, potential impacts of these exposures, and the environmental trade-off between implementing mechanical response and a dispersant response. Because the dilution potential is constrained in shallow water environments, spill size has significant impact on the magnitude and duration of potential exposure regimes for water column organisms. Spills of 250 bbls or less pose minimal concern for water column communities with potential net benefit to other coastal resources. The trade-offs were not so obvious for larger spills. The exposure regimes and potential impacts for water-column organisms that would be maximally exposed during a dispersant operation were compared to the exposures and potential impacts for organisms and habitats exposed to floating oil and oil stranded on shorelines, at levels that could result during a mechanical recovery operation. These potential impacts are compared on a spatial and temporal basis, and with consideration for potential rates of recovery.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, G. 2003. Ecological Risk Assessment: Consensus Workshop. Environmental Tradeoffs Associated with Oil Spill Response Technologies. U.S. and British Virgin Islands. Lusby, Md.: Ecosystem Manamgement & Associates. 34p.

Aurand, D.; Coelho, G. 2006. Ecological Risk Assessment: Consensus Workshop. Environmental Tradeoffs Associated With Oil Spill Response Technologies. Mexico – United States Pacific Coastal Border Region. A Report to the US Coast Guard, District 11. Lusby, Md.: Ecosystem Management & Associates, Inc. 50p.

Aurand, D. et al. 2004. Texas General Land Office “Spill of Opportunity” Dispersant Demonstration Project Description. Lusby, Md.: Ecosystem Management and Associates. (no page information available).

Aurand, D. et al. 2001. Results from cooperative ecological risk assessments for oil spill response planning in Galveston Bay, Texas and the San Francisco Bay area, California. In 2001 International Oil Spill Conference: Global Strategies for Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: March 26-29, 2001, Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 167-175. URL
Abstract
This paper summarizes the results of two cooperative ecological risk assessments (ERAs) that examined the potential environmental consequences of oil spill scenarios, two in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay, California and one in Galveston Bay, Texas. The goal of the evaluation was to identify the optimum mix of response options for reducing injury to the environment. For these specific scenarios, the participants concluded that only dispersant use, assuming high effectiveness, had the potential to significantly reduce environmental impact when compared to natural recovery. While water-column effects increased with dispersant use, they were not long-term and judged to be of less ecological significance than shoreline or water-surface impacts. Aside from dispersant use, only shoreline cleanup was effective in clearly mitigating impacts, and obviously would not prevent the immediate consequences of the spills. The optimum response was viewed as involving some combination of the various response options. There were some issues with data adequacy in both locations, but both groups felt the information was adequate for the analysis. In both ERAs, participants emphasized that the conclusions were scenario specific, and that additional analyses would be necessary before any significant generalizations could be made .
© 2001 with permission from API.

Aurand, D. et al. 2001. Ten years of research by the U.S. oil industry to evaluate the ecological issues of dispersant use: an overview of the past decade. In 2001 International Oil Spill Conference: Global Strategies for Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: March 26-29, 2001, Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 429-434. URL
Abstract
The Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) recently completed a multiyear research program on dispersants and dispersed oil consisting of four elements: information synthesis and dissemination, improved laboratory methods for toxicity evaluation, mesocosm testing, and field experiments. These research efforts contributed to the recent changes in the way dispersants are viewed in the United States. When combined with other research findings from the last 10 years, this information, now available to response planners, greatly improved and contributed to a growing interest in the use of dispersants, including the potential for the extension of preauthorization areas. The primary objectives of this paper are to summarize the objectives of the program, highlight major findings, and identify the sources where the results can be examined in detail.
© 2001 with permission from API.

Aurand, D.V. 1998. Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum: Dispersant and Dispersed Oil Laboratory Toxicity Studies Research Plan. Purcellville, Va.: Ecosystem Management & Associates. 17p. URL

Australian Marine Safety Agency. 1998. National Plan Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Test - Field Kit (Nat-DET). Melbourne: AMSA. 4p.

Avolizi, R.J.; Nuwayhid, M. 1974. Effects of crude oil and dispersants on bivalves. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 5:10, 149-153. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(74)90007-1.
Abstract
The toxic effects of crude oil, the dispersant, Corexit 7664, and mixtures of these on the respiration and mortality of two species of bivalve have been examined. A light Arabian crude is most toxic to one, Corexit is most toxic to the other. The susceptibility to oil of the mussel Brachidontes is also reflected in a significant depression of respiration rate at sub-lethal concentrations.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 5, R.J. Avolizi, M. Nuwayhid, Copyright 1974, with permission from Elsevier.

Özelsel S. 1983. The acute toxicity of three dispersants on Palaemonetes pugio. Revue Internationale d'Oceanographie Médicale, 70-71:3-14. ISSN:0035-3493.
Abstract
This investigation is concerned with the acute toxicity of dispersants Cold Clean, Conco dispersant K and Corexit 9527 on P. pugio. The experiments have been conducted at two different temperatures (17° C and 27° C). The animals used in these experiments were juveniles weighing 200 mgs and 25 mm. in length. The LC50 values were determined using the Litchfield-Wilcoxon (1949) and Log concentration verus percent of survival methods. The results show that toxicity increases with increasing temperature.
© CSA, 1984.

Özelsel S. 1981. The acute toxicity of several dispersants on Palaemonetes pugio (Crustacea, Decapoda). Revue Internationale d'Oceanographie Médicale, 63-64:103-117. ISSN:0035-3493.
Abstract
The acute toxicity of the dispersants Gold Crew, Nokomis-3, Atlantic-Pacific and Corexit 7664 on the Grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio have been investigated, and the LC50 values have been determined using the Litchfield-Wilcoxon (1949) and Log concentration versus percent of survival methods. Experiments have been conducted at 17° C and 27° C for comparative purposes. Results have shown that there is a definite increase in toxicity with increasing temperature, that Corexit 7664 is of very low toxicity, that present dispersants are quite low in toxicity when compared with earlier ones and that the test animal P. pugio is quite resistant as supported by Welsh (1975).
© CSA, 1982.

Özelsel S. 1983. The combined effects of some dispersants and PHC derivatives on Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck. Revue Internationale d'Oceanographie Médicale, 72:37-43. ISSN:0035-3493.
Abstract
The effects of certain PHC derivates, dispersants and their combinations have been investigated on the mussel M. galloprovincialis Lamarck with the purpose of actually determining how PHC derivatives and certain dispersants react. The results have been presented as graphs.
© CSA, 1984.

Özelsel, S. 1987. Comparison between the effects of concentrate dispersant Corexit 9527 and conventional dispersant 7664 and their combinations with marine diesel fuel on the mediolittoral species Monodonta turbinata Born. Biologia Gallo-Hellenica, 12:259-264. ISSN:0750-7321.

Børseth, J.F.; Jørgensen, L. 1986. Physiological effects of oil and of chemical treatments of oil on eggs of plaice, Pleuronectes platessa. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 179-186. ISBN:0662148126.

Baca, B.; Ward, G.A.; Lane, C.H.; Schuler, P.A. 2006. Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) of dispersed oil on nearshore tropical ecosystems derived from the 20 year "TROPICS" field study. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2006 Conference, London (Electronic Media). Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. 4p.

Baca, B.; Ward, G.A.; Lane, C.H.; Schuler, P.A. 2005. Net environmental benefit analysis (NEBA) of dispersed oil on nearshore tropical ecosystems derived from the 20 year "TROPICS" field study. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 453-456. URL
Abstract
In November 1984, non-treated Prudhoe Bay crude oil and dispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil were intentionally released into two separate sites, representative of nearshore mangrove, seagrass, and coral ecosystems, as part of the Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems (TROPICS) field study in Bahia de Almirante, Panama. Data on the relative effects of non-treated crude oil and dispersed crude oil on these ecosystems (compared to a reference site) were acquired analyzed over various periods (30 days, 3 months, and 2.6, 10, 17, 18, and 20 years). in the short term, the oil caused mortality to invertebrate fauna, seagrass beds, and corals at both sites. At the non-treated crude oil site, there was also significant mortality to the mangrove forest. Twenty-year observations on mangrove substrate core samples reveal the continued presence of oil and diminished mangrove repopulation, as well as substrate erosion, at the non-treated crude oil site. No oil was detected and no long-term impacts were observed at the dispersed crude oil and reference sites. These results provide baseline scientific data for developing a Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) of dispersant use in nearshore tropical systems. This paper is a review of TROPICS data and its application to NEBA preparation. Data and NEBA from the 20-year TROPICS study clearly show that the use of dispersant in the nearshore environment is a sound strategy for both minimizing environmental damage to tropical ecosystems and for providing the best opportunity for recovery and repopulation in this environment. Results of this work should be applicable to similar tropical ecosystems.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Baca, B.J.; Getter, C.D. 1984. The toxicity of oil and chemically dispersed oil to the seagrass Thalassia testudinum. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 314-323. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
Turtle grass beds, a valuable natural resource, are diminishing throughout the tropics because of damage from dredging, boats, and other factors. The toxicity of chemical dispersants and crude oil to turtle grass was determined in the laboratory to assess the potential for damage from spills occurring in the field. Studies of water-soluble fractions (WSF) of crude oil in static bioassays showed that a chemical dispersant (Corexit® 9527) increased the amount of total oil in water more than 50-fold. The toxicity of chemically dispersed oil was assessed by conventional (96-h 50% lethal concentration) methods in static systems, and the results were compared with toxicity measurements where the system was flushed after 12 h. the 12-h single dose systems simulated certain active natural systems by the incorporation of dilution by tides and by using shorter exposure times. The rationale was verified by work with oil spills in the tropics. Using actual total hydrocarbon concentration for crude oil, dispersed oil, and dispersants alone allowed a comparison of their toxicities. Prudhoe Bay crude WSF was more toxic than dispersed oil or dispersant alone, possible because of the large component of benzene, toluene, and C-2 benzene. The percentage of green (chlorophyllous) leaves was useful as evidence of toxicity. The importance of anatomical features such as the recessed meristem and abundant leaf sheaths in protecting the growing region from waterborne pollutants was evident.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Baca, B.J.; Getter, C.D.; Ballou, T.G.; Linstedt-Siva, J. 1985. A method for site-specific planning for dispersant use. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp.640.
Abstract
A method is described for site-specific advanced planning for dispersant use. The method was designed to be an integral part of a spill response plan for a portion of the California coast and to provide site-specific information to the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) regarding the use or nonuse of dispersants. The development of the dispersant use plan follows the findings of the American Petroleum Institute (API), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and a special task force of government and industry representatives formed to develop and critique the plan for the California study area. The dispersant use plan considers several physical factors, including the type, amount, and trajectory of spilled oil, and ecological factors, such as species and habitat sensitivity and seasonality. Four categories of recommendations are given in maps: 1. Dispersant use recommended to protect sensitive intertidal habitats or species; 2. Dispersant use unrestricted; 3. Dispersant use with some restrictions; 4. Dispersant use not recommended. although the plan was originally designed for application in the central and southern California area, the method may be applied elsewhere with some modification.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Baek, J.S.; Kim, G.S.; Cho, E.I. 1996. The biodegradation characteristics of the mixtures of Bunker-A, B oils with dispersants in the seawater. Journal of the Korean Fisheries Society, 29:6, 787-796. ISSN:0374-8111.
Abstract
The biodegradation experiment, the TOD analysis and the element analysis for dispersant, Bunker-A oil and Bunker-B oil were conducted to study the biodegradation characteristics of a mixture of Bunker-A oil with dispersant and a mixture of Bunker-B oil with dispersant in the seawater. The results of biodegradation experiment showed 1 mg of dispersant to be equivalent to 0.26 mg of BOD5 and to 0.60 mg of BOD20 in the natural seawater. The results of TOD analysis showed each 1 mg of dispersant, Bunker-A oil and Bunker-B oil to be equivalent to 2.37 mg, 2.94 mg and 2.74 mg of TOD, respectively. The results of element analysis showed carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus contents of dispersant to be 82.1%, 13.8%, 1.8% and 2.2%, respectively. Carbon and hydrogen contents of Bunker-A oil were found to be 73.3% and 13.5%, respectively, and carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen contents of Bunker-B oil to be 80.4%, 12.3% and 0.7%, respectively. Accordingly, the detection of nitrogen and phosphorus in dispersant shows that dispersants should be used with caution in coastal waters, with relation to eutrophication. The biodegradability of dispersant expressed as the ratio of BOD5/TOD was found to be 11.0%. As the mix ratios of dispersant to Bunker-A oil (3 mg/l) and a mixture of Bunker-B oil (3 mg/l) were changed from 1:10 to 5:10, the biodegradabilities of a mixture of Bunker-A oil with dispersant and Bunker-8 oil with dispersant increased from 2.1% to 7.2% and from 1.0% to 4.4%, respectively. Accordingly, the dispersant belongs to the organic matter group of middle-biodegradability while mixtures in the mix ratio range of 1:10-5:10 belong to the organic matter group of low-biodegradability. The deoxygenation rate constant (K1) and ultimate biochemical oxygen demand (L0) obtained from the biodegradation experiment and Thomas slope method were found to be 0.125/day and 2.487 mg/l for dispersant (4 mg/l), respectively. K1 and L0 were found to be 0.079-0.131/day and 0.318-2.052 mg/l for a mixture of Bunker-A oil with dispersant and to be 0.106-0.371/day and 0.262-1.106 mg/l for a mixture of Bunker-B oil with dispersant, respectively, having 1:10-5:10 mix ratios of dispersant to Bunker-A oil and Bunker-B oil. The ultimate biochemical oxygen demands of the mixtures increased as the mix ratio of dispersant to Bunker-A, B oils changed from 1:10 to 5:10. This suggests that the more dispersants are applied to the sea for the cleanup of Bunker-A oil or Bunker-B oil, the more the dissolved oxygen level decreases in the seawater.
© CSA, 1996.

Baker, J.M. 1971. Studies on salt-marsh communities. Comparative toxicities of oils, oil fractions, and emulsifiers. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 78-87. ISBN:0852930283.
Abstract
Work on salt-marsh plants has shown that the low-boiling fractions of crude oil are the most toxic. Fresh crude oil is more toxic than weathered oil. Further evidence from the literature is reviewed: oils vary in their toxicity according to the content of low-boiling compounds, unsaturated compounds, aromatics, and acids. The higher the concentration of these constituents, the more toxic the oil. All undiluted emulsifiers tested were more toxic to plants than fresh Kuwait crude oil, but none caused permanent damage at concentrations of less than 10%.
© CSA, 1973.

Baker, J.M. 1971. Studies on salt-marsh communities. Effects of cleaning. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 52-57. ISBN:0852930283.
Abstract
Emulsifier treatment, burning, and cutting have been experimentally investigated as possible cleaning methods for oiled salt-marsh vegetation [Spartina and Puccinellia]. The results given show that none of these methods decrease the damage due to the oil, and they may increase it. In general it is, therefore, best to leave oiled salt marsh to recover naturally.
© CSA, 1973.

Baker, J.M. 1976. Environmental effect of oil and the chemicals used to control it on the shore and splash zones. In Wardley-Smith, J. (ed.). The Control of Oil Pollution on the Sea and Inland Waters. London: Graham and Trotman Ltd. pp. 57-72.

Baker, J.M.; Crapp, G.B. 1974. Toxicity tests for predicting the ecological effects of oil and emulsifier pollution on littoral communities. In Beynon, L.R.; Cowell, E.B. (eds.). Ecological Aspects of Toxicity Testing of Oils and Dispersants. New York: Wiley. pp. 23-40. ISBN:0470071907.
Abstract
The paper describes tests made in an attempt to bridge the gap between laboratory and field studies on the relative toxicity of oils and emulsifiers, and the effects of these on communities in saltmarshes and rocky shores. Tests were carried out on the relative toxicities of oils by using saltmarsh turves housed in greenhouses; it was found that little additional information was obtained by this method than by easier methods used previously. Tests were carried out in the field to investigate the effect of oil spillage on a saltmarsh community by treating 8 plots in each of 3 different saltmarsh communities with varying amounts of Kuwait crude. The results of these field tests corresponded well with observations following actual oil spillages. Laboratory tests on the toxicity of the emulsifier BP 1002 were carried out by exposing animals to various concentrations in sea water for one hour, then rinsing them in sea water in which they were left to recover. Relating the results to effects of pollution in the field proved difficult, but enough information was collected to show that these results were reflected in the field mortalities. Factors affecting the accuracy of short-and long-term predictions of ecological effects of the use of emulsifiers are discussed, and following this, some ecological predictions are made, based on the results of tests in the laboratory using the new emulsifier, BP 1100, and taking into account correlations between the laboratory and field toxicities of BP 1002, and the factors described above.
© CSA, 1975.

Baker, J.M.; Crothers, J.H.; Little, D.I.; Oldham, J.H.; Wilson, C.M. 1984. Comparison of the fate and ecological effects of dispersed and nondispersed oil in a variety of intertidal habitats. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 239-279. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
Field experiments were carried out to compare the littoral fate and ecological effects of chemically dispersed oil and nondispersed oil. The basic experimental design was a series of treatments applied to marked plots on rocky shores, a salt marsh, an intertidal sea-grass bed, and sand and mud flats. The treatments included a variety of oils and the dispersants BP 1100 WD, BP 1100X, Corexit® 8667, and Corexit 7664, applied directly to the intertidal plots. Results from treatments on intertidal rock suggested that oil deposition or oil deposition followed by dispersant cleaning had a greater effect than dispersant cleaning alone on limpets (Patella spp.) and small winkles (Littorina spp.). On the salt marsh, oil or oil followed by dispersant cleaning significantly reduced the density of the perennial grass Spartina anglica C.E. Hubbard and the annual plant Salicornia spp. Dispersant alone had relatively little effect on the vegetation. On the sea-grass bed, although variability was high, all treatments reduced the percentage cover of the sea-grass Zostera noltii Hornem. Sediment hydrocarbon analysis indicated little long-term retention of applied oil (whether dispersant treated or not) in the salt marsh mud and in muddy sand on a waterlogged intertidal flat. However, in the sea-grass bed sediments and in the fine sands on freely draining intertidal flats, dispersant-treated oil was, in some cases, retained at greater concentrations than untreated oil. The results are discussed with reference to the rocky shore Exposure Scale of Ballantine, to the shoreline Vulnerability Index of Gundlach and Hayes, and to factors such as the behavior of the water table, particle size, and depth of disturbance of sediments.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Baklien Å.; Lange R.; Reiersen L.O. 1986. A comparison between the physiological effects in fish exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations of a dispersant and dispersed oil. Marine Environmental Research, 19:1, 1-11. ISSN:0141-1136. DOI:10.1016/0141-1136(86)90036-X.
Abstract
The acute and sublethal effects of a dispersant and crude oil on anisomotic and isosmotic regulation in flounder have been tested. Flounder were exposed to different concentrations of Corexit 9527 and crude oil by use of a biotest system. Fourteen days' exposure to 20 ppm of Corexit 9527, alone or in a 1:1 mixture with crude oil, had no effect on the blood parameters. On the other hand, 96 hours' exposure to 80 ppm of the same compounds led to 50% mortality and significant effects on the blood parameters in surviving fish. The comparability between effects obtained in fish exposed to lethal and sublethal concentrations of toxicants, respectively, is discussed.
Reprinted from Marine Environmental Research, Volume 19, Å. Baklien, R. Lange, L.O. Reiersen, Copyright 1986, with permission from Elsevier.

Baldini, I.; Cugurra, F. 1974. Ichthyotoxic effects of some anti-pollution products. Water Research, 8:5, 323-324. ISSN:0043-1354. DOI:10.1016/0043-1354(74)90096-7.
Abstract
Research was conducted using 14 dispersants to determine toxicity to Carassius auratus in both freshwater and saltwater experiments. The least toxic of the dispersants were Esso Corexit 8666 and 7664, followed by Finasol OSR/2 and SC.

Ballou, T.G. 1986. The Effects of Oil and Dispersants on the Pulmonate Gastropod Melampus coffeus. Thesis (M.S.), University of South Carolina. 106 leaves.

Ballou, T.G.; Dodge, R.; Hess, S.; Knap, A. 1989. Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems (TROPICS): the effects of untreated and chemically dispersed Prudhoe Bay crude oil on mangroves, seagrasses, and corals in Panama. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 229-256. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
A multidisciplinary long-term field experiment was conducted to evaluate the use of chemical dispersants as a means of reducing adverse environmental effects of oil spills in nearshore, tropical waters. Three study sites whose intertidal and subtidal components consisted of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs were studied in detail before, during, and after exposure to untreated crude oil or chemically dispersed oil. This study was intended to simulate an unusually high, worst-case exposure level of dispersed oil and a moderate exposure level of untreated oil. The third site served as an untreated reference site. Assessments were made of the distribution and extent of contamination by hydrocarbons over time, and the short-term and long-term effects on survival, abundance, and growth of the dominant flora and fauna of each habitat. The whole, untreated oil had severe, long-term effects on survival of mangroves and associated fauna and relatively minor effects on seagrasses, corals and associated organisms. Chemically dispersed oil caused declines in the abundance of corals, sea urchins, and other reef organisms; reduced coral growth rate in one species; and had minor or no effects on sea grasses and mangroves. Conclusions were drawn from these results with respect to decision making at the site of the actual spills based upon trade-offs on the consequences of dispersing or not dispersing the oil.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Ballou, T.G.; Dodge, R.E.; Hess, S.C.; Knap, A.H.; Sleeter, T.D. 1987. Effects of a Dispersed and Undispersed Crude Oil on Mangroves, Seagrasses and Corals. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. 198p. URL

Ballou, T.G.; Hess, S.C.; Dodge, R.E.; Knap, A.H.; Sleeter, T.D. 1989. Effects of untreated and chemically dispersed oil on tropical marine communities: a long-term field experiment. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 447-454.
Abstract
A multidisciplinary long-term field experiment was conducted to evaluate the use of chemical dispersants to reduce the adverse environmental effects of oil spills in nearshore, tropical waters. Three study sites, whose intertidal and subtidal components consisted of mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, were studied in detail before, during, and after exposure to untreated crude oil or chemically dispersed oil. This study simulated an unusually high ("worst case") exposure level of dispersed oil and a moderate exposure level of untreated oil. The third site served as an untreated reference site. Assessments were made of the distribution and extent of contamination by hydrocarbons over time, and the short- and long-term effects on survival, abundance, and growth of the dominant flora and fauna of each habitat. The whole, untreated oil had severe, long-term effects on survival of mangroves and associated fauna, and relatively minor effects on seagrasses, corals, and associated organisms. Chemically dispersed oil caused declines in the abundance of corals, sea urchins, and other reef organisms, reduced coral growth rate in one species, and had minor or no effects on seagrasses and mangroves. Conclusions were drawn from these results on decision making for actual spills based on trade-offs between dispersing or not dispersing the oil. This report deals only with the major results of the study. A large number of parameters were monitored, but in the interest of brevity only the most important aspects of the study are reported here. A detailed description of the methods used and a complete presentation and discussion of results is given in Ballou et al.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Ballou, T.G.; Dodge, R.E.; Hess, S.C.; Knap, A.H.; Sleeter, T.D. 1987. Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems (TROPICS) -- Final Report to American Petroleum Institute. Columbia, S.C.: Research Planning Institute. 218p.

Ballou, T.G. et al. 1987. Final results of the API TROPICS oil spill and dispersant use experiments in Panama. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 634.

Barbouteau, G.; Angles, M.; La Salle, Y.L.G. 1987. Dispersant spraying gun. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 313-316.
Abstract
An agricultural forced-air spray gun was modified to apply dispersant from the deck of a ship at sea. Under no-wind conditions, this sprayer had a range of up to 30 meters; with the wind behind it, dispersant could be applied over a slick area up to 60 meters from the ship. Further development will involve testing in actual spill conditions by one of the subsidiaries of the Elf Aquitaine Group.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Bardach, J.E.; Fujiya, M.; Holl, A. 1965. Detergents: effects on the chemical senses of the fish, Ictalurus natalis (Le Sueur). Science, 148:1605-1607. ISSN:0193-4511.

Bardot, C. 1986. Évaluation de la Toxicité d'un Traitement par Dispersion d'une Pollution Pétrolière: Emploi au Laboratoire de Crangon crangon dans des Conditions Ccontrôlées. Paris: Éd. Technip. 137p.

Bardot, C.; Castaing, G. 1987. Toxicity of chemically dispersed oil in a flow-through system. In Kuiper, J.; Van den Brink, W. J. (eds.). Fate and Effects of Oil in Marine Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Conference on Oil Pollution. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 207-209. ISBN:9024734894.
Abstract
Details are given of an experiment conducted using the brown shrimp (Crangon crangon) in toxicity tests with Noramium DA50, in order to determine the toxicity of chemically dispersed oil. Closed and flow-through systems used showed similar toxicities; the size of oil droplet appeared to be a determining factor in toxicity as mortality was observed to be greater with small diameter droplets.
© CSA, 1987.

Bardot, C.; Bocard, C.; Castaing, G.; Gatellier, C. 1984. The importance of a dilution process to evaluate effectiveness and toxicity of chemical dispersant. In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 179-201.

Barger, W.R. 1973. Laboratory and field testing of surface-film forming chemicals for use as oil collecting agents. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 241-246.
Abstract
Since it is desirable to minimize the area covered by oil spilled on water, and since all oil recovery devices operate more efficiently on thicker oil layers, there is much interest in chemicals which can slow the spreading of oil or even drive the oil back into a thicker layer after it has already spread. 47 commercially available chemicals capable of controlling oil were examined in the lab during 1971 to determine which were practical oil collecting agents. A series of screening tests was developed, based upon physical properties and surface-chemical properties. The materials judged to be most useful by these tests are presently being evaluated in multicomponent field tests of oil recovery equipment. Both lab and field tests have indicated that such materials can aid in cleaning up spilled oil.
© 1973 with permission from API.

Barker, C.D. 1979. Application of chemical dispersants at sea. Annual Meeting Papers, American Petroleum Institute Production Department. (no page information available). ISSN:0196-9978.
Abstract
The Southern California Oil Spill Test Program is described in detail and operational aspects of the program are discussed. The report states that vessel application of chemical dispersants is an effective method of delivery, and that aircraft is even more effective in terms of area coverage and response time from notification of spill. Four dispersant spraying methods were found to be practical means of application at sea.

Barnea, N.; Laferriere, R. 1999. SMART: scientific monitoring of advanced response technologies. In Beyond 2000, Balancing Perspectives: Proceedings: 1999 International Oil Spill Conference: March 8-11, 1999, Seattle, Washington. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1265-1267. URL
Abstract
SMART (Scientific Monitoring of Advanced Response Technologies) is a new monitoring program designed to provide the Unified Command with real-time field data when in situ burning and dispersants are used during oil spill response. For dispersant monitoring, SMART recommends a three-tiered approach. Tier I has visual observation by trained observers from vessels or from aerial platforms. Tier II combines visual observations with water-column sampling using a fluorometer at a single depth. Tier III expands the fluorometry monitoring to several water depths, and uses a water-quality lab. Water samples for later analysis and correlation of fluorometry readings are taken both in Tier II and Tier III. For in situ burning, SMART recommends deploying three or more monitoring teams, each equipped with a real-time particulate monitor with data-logging capability. The teams deploy downwind of the burn at sensitive locations, and report particulate concentration trends to the United Command.
© 1999 with permission from API.

Barnett, J.; Toews, D. 1978. The effects of crude oil and the dispersant Oilsperse 43 on respiration and coughing rates in Atlantic salmon Salmo salar. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 56:2, 307-310. ISSN:0008-4301.
Abstract
Emulsions of Venezuelan crude oil and the dispersant, Oilsperse 43, in both unweathered and artificially weathered forms, increased the coughing rate of post smolt Atlantic salmon (S. salar L.) in fresh water at sublethal concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.7 toxic units in 12-h tests. Coughing rates increased significantly in what appeared to be a concentration- and time-related basis while respiration rates declined at the higher sublethal levels. At most concentrations tested, there were no significant differences between the physiological responses in either unweathered or artificially weathered emulsions.
© CSA, 1978.

Barron, M.G.; Carls, M.G.; Short, J.W.; Rice, S.D. 2002. Photoenhanced Toxicity of Aqueous Phase and Chemically-Dispersed Weathered Alaska North Slope Crude Oil to Pacific Herring Eggs and Larvae. Anchorage, Ak.: Price William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council. 30p. URL

Barron, M.G.; Carls, M.G.; Short, J.W.; Rice, S.D. 2003. Photoenhanced toxicity of aqueous phase and chemically dispersed weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil to Pacific herring eggs and larvae. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 22:3, 650-660. ISSN:0730-7268. DOI:10.1897/1551-5028(2003)022<0650:PTOAPA>2.0.CO;2.
Abstract
Larvae of pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) were used to study the photoenhanced toxicity of North Slope crude oil alone or in the presence of Corexit® 9527. Dispersant and oil had similar toxicities as oil alone when tested in control and with UVA treatments. However, exposure to sunlight created significant levels of increased toxicity. Corexit® sped up the dissolution of PAHs into the aqueous phase, which accelerated toxicity of the material. 96 h no-observed-efect concentrations in UVA treatments were 0.2 μg/L tPAH, while sunlight treatments were 0.01 μg/g tPAH.

Barron, M.G. 2003. Critical Evaluation of CROSERF Test Methods for Oil Dispersant Toxicity Testing Under Subarctic Conditions. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 18p. URL

Barron, M.G.; Ka'aihue, L. 2003. Critical evaluation of CROSERF test methods for oil dispersant toxicity testing under subarctic conditions. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46:9, 1191-1199. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00125-5.
Abstract
The aquatic organism toxicity testing protocols developed by the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Research Forum (CROSERF) were evaluated for applicability to assessing chemical dispersant toxicity under subarctic conditions. CROSERF participants developed aquatic toxicity testing protocols with the foremost objective of standardizing test methods and reducing inter-laboratory variability. A number of refinements are recommended to adapt the CROSERF protocols for testing with subarctic species under conditions of expected longer oil persistence. Recommended refinements of the CROSERF protocols include testing fresh and moderately weathered oil under conditions of moderate mixing energy, preparing toxicity test solutions using variable dilutions rather than variable loading, performing tests with subarctic species using static exposures in open chambers, increasing the duration of tests from 4 to 7 days, quantifying approximately 40 PAHs and their alkyl homologs, assessing the potential for photoenhanced toxicity, and incorporating a bioaccumulation endpoint by measuring tissue concentrations of PAHs. Refinements in the preparation of oil dosing solutions, exposure and light regimes, and analytical chemistry should increase the utility of the test results for interpreting the toxicity of chemically dispersed oil and making risk management decisions regarding dispersant use under subarctic conditions.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 46, M.G. Barron, L. Ka'aihue, Copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.

Battelle Memorial Institute. 1970. Oil Spill Treating Agents: A Compendium. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. (no page information available).

Battelle Memorial Institute. 1970. Oil Spill Treating Agents. Test Procedures: Status and Recommendations, Final Report. Richland, Wa.: Pacific Northwest Laboratories. 280p.

Battelle Memorial Institute. 1969. Study of Equipment and Methods for Removing Oil from Harbor Waters. Richland, Wa.: Pacific Northwest Laboratories. 185p. URL
Abstract
A cost effectiveness analysis was performed for equipment, materials, and techniques for removal of spilled petroleum products from the surface of port and harbor waters used by US Naval craft. Effectiveness criteria, formulated for present methods and presently available equipment and materials, included speed of application, completeness of removal, ease of operation, effect on marine life, operating continuity, and availability. Parameters for the effectiveness study were based on the petroleum products now in use or those planned for future use and a detailed review of the geographic, hydrographic, physical, and environmental characteristics of ports used by the US Navy. The two most cost-effective systems for broad application were found to be mechanical recovery of spilled material by surface suction devices, supplemented by mechanical containment, and the application of chemical dispersants by pier or vessel-mounted high pressure spray equipment.
© CSA, 1973.

Battershill, C.N.; Bergquist, P.R. 1982. Responses of an intertidal gastropod to field exposure of an oil and a dispersant. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 13:5, 159-162. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(82)90086-8.
Abstract
A dispersing agent, Shell SD LTX, was found to be highly toxic to Nerita (Melanerita) atramentosa melanotragus when applied in combination with Maui Condensate. The agent was not found to produce significant mortality in the mollusc when applied in the absence of the crude oil. However, sublethal effects were identified, including large reductions in weight, changes in gonad tissue structure, and fertility.

Battershill, C.N.; Bergquist, P.R. 1984. The influence of biorhythms on sensitivity of Nerita to pollutants at sublethal levels. Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, 2:1, 31-38. ISSN:0143-7127. DOI:10.1016/S0143-7127(84)90685-9.
Abstract
Intrinsic rhythmic activity of Nerita (Melanerita) atramentosa melanotragus was assessed under constant laboratory conditions. Activity proved to be a sensitive indicator of toxicity, and was affected by low levels of a relatively new oil dispersing agent, Shell SD LTX. How the state of activity influenced animal sensitivity to Shell SD LTX and to an oil, Maui Condensate, was investigated using short-term recovery experiments. Nerita were most sensitive during their active phase, and results during this period differed significantly from tests carried out during the inactive phase of the animal. Dispersant/oil mixture proved to be highly toxic. These findings have ecological implications and permit comment relating to the design of sublethal toxicity tests. These subjects are discussed.
Reprinted from Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, Volume 2, C.N. Battershill, P.R. Bergquist, Copyright 1984, with permission from Elsevier.

Beach, R.L. 1980. State of the art in high sea-state oil pollution response capabilities. Environment International, 3:2, 171-176. ISSN:0160-4120. DOI:10.1016/0160-4120(80)90052-5.
Abstract
This paper describes the state-of-the-art approaches to dealing with the two major types of open-water pollution incidents encountered in bad weather — a tanker stranding where the oil is still contained within the tanks, and an actual spillage from a damaged tanker or fixed source. In the stranding case, the cargo off-loading approach is compared with cargo jettisoning (pumping part of the cargo overboard) and stabilization approaches. In the spillage case, the basic approaches that are feasible are skimming and the use of dispersants. The advantages of each are discussed. Systems including large containment barriers are estimated to be less effective than direct-acting skimmers because of the operational control problems in high sea states. Effective direct-acting skimmers are not in wide-spread use at present, although several systems are under development. Dispersant systems are estimated to have the highest sea-state operating capability, particularly aircraft-application systems, which could be effective in conditions up to where a slick is rapidly dispersed through natural wave turbulence.
Reprinted from Environment International, Volume 3, R.L. Beach, Copyright 1980, with permission from Elsevier.

Beaupoil, C.; Nedelec, D. 1994. Etude de la toxicite du produit de lavage Corexit® 9500 vis-a-vis de la crevette blanche Palaemonetes varians. Concarneau, France: Laboratoire de Biologie Marine. (no page information available).

Becker, C.D.; Lichatowich, J.A.; Schneider, M.J.; Strand, J.A. 1973. Regional Survey of Marine Biota for Bioassay Standardization of Oil and Oil Dispersant Chemicals. Richland, Wa.: Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories. 104p.

Becker, K.W.; Coker, L.G.; Walsh, M.A. 1991. A method for evaluating oil spill dispersants: Exxon Dispersant Effectiveness Test (EXDET). In Oceans 91: October 1-3, 1991, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Proceedings: Ocean Technologies and Opportunities in the Pacific for the 90s. Volume 3. New York: IEEE. pp. 1486-1490. ISBN:0780302036.
Abstract
The Exxon Dispersant Effectiveness Test, EXDET, was developed to address certain concerns associated with currently available laboratory dispersant effectiveness test procedures. The EXDET procedure discussed is a modification of the Labofina/WSL test methods which have been recognized as standards for evaluation of dispersants in laboratory simulations. Modifications which have been incorporated in the EXDET procedure are: 1) an improved agitation method, 2) an enhanced sample collection, 3) a mass balance capability for dispersed/undispersed oil, 4) a technique for better interlab correlation, and 5) a better oil/water ratio. This procedure uses standard laboratory equipment and small volumes of water, oil, and chemical dispersant. The procedure can handle four replicates per test set. Four sets (16 data points) can easily be conducted per day, leading to sufficient data for effective statistical analysis.
© CSA, 1991.

Becker, K.W.; Walsh, M.A.; Fiocco, R.J.; Curran, M.T. 1993. A new laboratory method for evaluating oil spill dispersants. In Proceedings: 1993 International Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Preparedness, Response): March 29-April 1, 1993, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 507-510.
Abstract
A new dispersant effectiveness test, named EXDET, was developed to address certain concerns associated with currently available laboratory dispersant effectiveness test procedures. This new procedure uses standard laboratory equipment (such as a Burrell Wrist-Action shaker) and small volumes of water, oil, and chemical dispersant. Other features include the capabilities to mass balance the dispersed and non-dispersed oil, and to generate replicate data for statistical analysis. Details of the new procedure are presented and data at various test conditions illustrate features of the laboratory test method. Variables, such as dispersant/oil ratio, dispersant addition method, water salinity and oil/water ratio can readily be investigated for various crude oils and dispersants with the new method.
© 1993 with permission from API.

Becker, K.W.; Lindblom, G.P. 1983. Performance evaluation of a new versatile oil spill dispersant. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 61-64.
Abstract
Several oil spill dispersants available since 1975 have successfully dispersed spills of light to medium oils. However, they generally have performed poorly on heavily weathered oil, low gravity viscous oils, waxy crudes, “chocolate mousse” emulsions, and any oil spilled in cold environments. Some also were not formulated for use on waters of low salinity. In many cases involving spills of low viscosity oils, the decision to use chemical treatment has been delayed until the oil is in a weathered state. Chemical treatment under any of these conditions requires that the active surfactants reach the oil/water interface with the aid of a penetrating hydrocarbon solvent. Such formulations lose effectiveness when diluted with water (as in boat spraying) and usually must be used undiluted at a high dosage. They also often are too low in viscosity and density to be sprayed efficiently by aircraft. This paper discusses the properties and performance of formulations which avoid the above oil viscosity and water salinity problems and offer, for the first time, opportunity for widespread chemical treatment of such spills by aerial spray from large aircraft.
© 1983 with permission from API.

Belk, J.L.; Elliot, D.J.; Flaherty, M. 1989. The comparative effectiveness of dispersants in fresh and low salinity marshes. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 333-336.
Abstract
Four marine dispersant concentrates and two freshwater dispersant concentrates were tested in the laboratory for effectiveness in zero to average salinity using two different test oils. The data show that the comparative laboratory effectiveness for all the dispersants tested is lower at zero salinity, but that the variation in effectiveness as the salinity increases is different for each dispersant. Another part of the study compares the effectiveness of one marine dispersant and two freshwater dispersants in different electrolyte solutions. It is shown that effectiveness behavior in calcium and magnesium salt solutions is markedly different from that in sodium salt solutions. The results suggest that any future test protocol for dispersant effectiveness in fresh waters should take into account the detailed composition of the water in question.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Belkhir, M. et al. 1986. Oil spill dispersant toxicity on fish and mollusc. Bulletin de l'Institut National Scientifique et Technique d'Océanographie et de Pêche, 13:13-18. ISSN:0579-7926.
Abstract
The procedure is described for a toxicity test of an oil dispersant (Dispolene 325) using fish (Mugil ramada, Atherina hepsetus and Aphanius fasciatus) and molluscs (Mytilus galloprovincialis and Tapes decussates). Findings show the dispersant to be very toxic even at low concentrations; the most resistant species shows a complete mortality in a few minutes.
© CSA, 1986.

Bellatoni, J. 1982. Properties of Oil Spill Dispersants. The Logistics of Oil Spill Dispersant Application. Volume 1. Logistics-Related Properties of Oil Spill Dispersants. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Marine Environment and Systems. 96p.
Abstract
The use of chemicals for oil spill dispersal, while not presently widespread in the U.S., would have implications for the U.S. Coast Guard's Marine Environmental Protection program. This report explores the logistics of oil dispersant application by the U.S. Coast Guard. Data were reviewed for the 13 dispersants for which data had been submitted to the EPA as of October 1979. Manufacturer's data and published test results were also examined and information summarized with regard to classification, handling and storage application, availability and cost.

Bellatoni, J. 1982. The Logistics of Oil Spill Dispersant Application. Volume 2. Application Techniques, Stockpiling, Dispersant Selection, Strategies. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Marine Environment and Systems. 126p.

Bellos, D.A. 1997. Methods of Control: Oil Spills in Water Dispersant Application Management. Thesis (M.S.), New York Institute of Technology. 128 leaves.

Belore, R. 1986. Development of a High Pressure Water Mixing Concept for Use With Ship-Based Dispersant Application. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Studies Revolving Funds. 51p. ISBN:0920783333. URL

Belore, R. 1986. Large-scale laboratory studies of dispersant effectiveness, application and mixing. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 527-542. ISBN:0662148126.
Abstract
Three studies, funded by the Environmental Studies Revolving Funds to investigate the effectiveness of chemical dispersants on oil, are reviewed. Each study employed large-scale laboratory testing which were conducted in an Ottawa facility. One study concentrated on the value of repeat applications of chemical dispersants on oil. A second study dealt with the development of using high pressure water mixing for dispersant application by boat. The third study focused on effectiveness testing of dispersants in a meso-scale laboratory.

Belore, R. 1987. Mid-scale testing of dispersant effectiveness. In Proceedings of the Tenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 9-11, 1987, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 329-342. ISBN:0662154630.

Belore, R. 1987. A study of dispersant effectiveness using ultra-uniform drop-size generator. In Proceedings of the Tenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 9-11, 1987, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 357-371. ISBN:0662154630.

Belore, R. 1987. Use of high-pressure water mixing for ship-based oil spill dispersing. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 297-302.
Abstract
This paper discusses a project funded by Canada's Environmental Studies Revolving Fund to assess the potential of high-pressure water jets in assisting the chemical dispersion of oil at sea. Full-scale laboratory tests were conducted using 0.5-mm thick, fresh Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend crude oil treated with Corexit 9527 dispersant applied from an overhead spray boom at a dispersant-to-oil ratio of 1: 100. The effects on dispersion efficiency of mixing jet pressure, mixing jet flow rate, jet standoff distance, and vessel speed were evaluated. Based on the test results, specifications for a practical high-pressure water jet system have been suggested. The system would operate with a nozzle pressure of 7,000 kPa, a flow rate of 55 L/min per nozzle, and nozzles positioned about 0.6 m from the water surface. In laboratory tests such a system was capable of dispersing 80 to 100 percent of the surface slick, whereas similar tests with the well-known Warren Spring Laboratory breaker board system resulted in only a 10 percent dispersion.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Belore, R. 1985. Effectiveness of the Repeat Application of Chemical Dispersants on Oil. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Studies Revolving Funds. 66p. ISBN:0920783058. URL

Belore, R. 1987. Mid-Scale Testing of Dispersant Effectiveness. Ottawa, Ont.: S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd. 82p. ISBN:0920783694. URL

Belore, R.; Mackay, D. 1987. Drop Size and Dispersant Effectiveness: Small-Scale Laboratory Testing. Ottawa, Ont.: S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd. 31p. ISBN:092078308103. URL

Belore, R.; Ross, S. 2000. Laboratory study to compare the effectiveness of chemical dispersants when applied dilute versus neat. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 14 to 16, 2000, Coast Plaza Suite Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 733-748. URL
Abstract
Corexit 9527 and 9500 were used in large-scale laboratory tests to determine their effectiveness on Alaska North Slope crude oil when applied either neat or when diluted with salt water. Corexit 9527 was successful when diluted in water at a ratio of 1:10. However, the effectiveness of Corexit 9500 was reduced to either 1:10 or 3:10 dilutions. Because of this, researchers believe that Corexit 9500 should be applied by single-nozzle spray systems in neat form to avoid reduced effectiveness.

Belore, R. 2002. Wave tank tests to determine the effectiveness of Corexit 9500 dispersant on Hibernia crude oil under cold water conditions. In Twenty-Fifth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Nineteenth Technical Seminar on Chemical Spills (TSOCS) and Fourth Biotechnology Solutions for Spills (BIOSS): June 11 to 13, 2002, Westin Calgary Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Proceedings. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 735-740. URL
Abstract
Mesoscale testing was undertaken with Corexit 9500 on Hibernia crude in cold winter conditions. Results indicate that chemical dispersion would be effective on Hibernia in cold conditions until the crude had evaporated to about 9-10% in volume. After this, the oil begins to solidify, making dispersion extremely difficult.

Belore, R. 2003. Large wave tank dispersant effectiveness testing in cold water. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 381-385. URL
Abstract
Research experiments were completed to determine the viability of using chemical dispersants on two crude oils in very cold water conditions. Tests were completed at Ohmsett (the National Oil Spill Response Facility in Leonardo, New Jersey) in late February and early March of 2002. Ohmsett is a large outdoor, above-ground concrete tank (203 m long by 20 m wide by 3.4 m deep) filled with 9.84 million gallons of salt water. The tank has a wave-generating paddle, a wave-dissipating beach, and mobile bridges that transport equipment over its surface. A refrigeration unit was installed to ensure that the water was kept at near freezing temperatures during the entire test program. A total of twelve large-scale tests were completed. Corexit 9500 and Corexit 9527 were applied to fresh and weathered Hibernia and Alaska North Slope crude oils, on cold water (-0.5 to 2.4 °C), at dispersant-to-oil ratios (DORs) ranging from 1:14 to 1:81. The average wave amplitude for the tests ranged between 16.5 and 22.5 cm and the average wave period was between 1.7 and 1.9 seconds. The effectiveness of the dispersant in each test was documented through extensive video records and by measurement of the residual oil remaining within the containment boom at the end of each test. The results clearly show that both dispersants were effective in dispersing the two crude oils tested in cold-water conditions.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Belore, R. 2004. The history of chemical dispersants in the United States. In Oil Spill Symposium 2004: New Dimension in Oil Spill Response after the Prestige ― Compensation and Response Technology. Tokyo: Petroleum Association of Japan. 8p. URL

Belore, R.; Ross, S. 1999. Testing and development of a single-nozzle spray system for vessel-based dispersant delivery. In Proceedings: Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 2 to 4, 1999, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 197-207. URL
Abstract
A foam application nozzle produced by Wormald Fire Systems was tested for use in dispersant application at sea. Although tests found that the nozzle did not produce a spray pattern suitable for dispersant application, researchers felt that it could be used in a neat spray application. The spray reach of the nozzle exceeded that of spray boom systems.

Belore, R. 2007. Identification of Window of Opportunity for Chemical Dispersants on Gulf of Mexico Crude Oils. Ottawa, Ont.: S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd. 28p. URL

Belore, R.C.; Trudel, B.K.; Jessiman, B.J.; Ross, S.L. 1990. An automated oil spill impact assessment system using a microcomputer based GIS. In GIS for the 1990s: Proceedings, National Conference, March 5-8, 1990, Ottawa, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Canadian Institute of Surveying and Mapping. pp. 87-102.

Belore, R.C.; Ross, S.L. 1984. Laboratory testing and design of ship-based dispersing systems. In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar: June 14-16, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 229-242.

Belore, R.C.; Trudel, B.K.; Lee, K. 2005. Correlating wave tank dispersant effectiveness tests with at-sea trials. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 65-70. URL
Abstract
Two important questions facing oil spill responders, planners, and researchers are: 1) What is the limiting viscosity of oil for dispersant use; and 2) How well do results from dispersant effectiveness tests performed in laboratory apparatus and experimental wave tanks reflect dispersant performance at sea? In order to begin addressing these questions, a series of at-sea dispersant effectiveness trials were completed in the UK in the summer of 2003 to estimate the viscosity of spilled fuel oils that limits dispersant effectiveness under conditions of moderate sea states (Beaufort Sea states 2 to 4). Two well-characterized marine fuel oils (IFO 180 and IFO 380) with viscosities of 2000 and 7000 cP were spilled, sprayed with dispersants, and dispersant effectiveness was assessed. Several types of dispersants and a range of dispersant dosages were tested. These tests are currently being repeated using a variety of laboratory and mesoscale dispersant apparatus to determine how well the results of these various test methods correlate with dispersant performance at sea. Dispersant effectiveness tests in the SL Ross wave tank, using the identical oils and dispersants from the UK offshore trial, were the focus of this study. The goal of the work was to determine if the dispersant effectiveness test results from this tank are similar to results measured in the offshore. The tank testing indicated that the IFO 180 oil (viscosity of 2000 cP at the test temperature of 16 °C) is readily dispersible with Corexit 9500 and Superdispersant 25 when applied at dispersant-to-oil ratios (DORs) exceeding 1:75 for for Corexit 9500 and 1:50 for Superdispersant 25. the IFO 380 fuel oil (viscosity of 7000 cP at the test temperature of 16 °C) was 53% dispersed when treated with Corexit 9500 at a DOR of 1:30. The IFO 380 oil can be dispersed, but larger quantities of dispersant must be applied to achieve significant results. The tank test dispersant effectiveness results measured for the Corexit 9500 dispersant were similar to the UK field test trends for the IFO 180 oil and were somewhat higher than the field results for the IFO 380 oil. The tank test results for Superdispersant 25 were slightly higher than the field trial trends for the IFO 180 oil and slightly lower for the IFO 380 oil. The limited data available for the Agma DR379 dispersant suggests that the tank test results were similar to the offshore trial results for the IFO 180 oil and lower for the IFO 380 oil. In general, the SL Ross tank test results matched the trends in the offshore results reasonably well. Variations in sea states and DORs during the sea trials, insufficient data points for direct comparison and the lack of resolution in the 4-point visual assessment system do not permit a more definitive comparison of the results of the test programs.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Berglund, H. 1965. The influence of the wetting agent “Tween 60” on growth of the green alga Enteromorpha linza L. Life Sciences, 4:8, 859-862. ISSN:0024-3205. DOI:10.1016/0024-3205(65)90280-8.
Abstract
Growth of the green alga Enteromorpha linza (L) was increased when the wetting agent "Tween 60" was added to the nutrient solution. This growth-promoting effect is then presumed to depend on the lowered surface tension.
Reprinted from Life Sciences, Volume 4, H. Berglund, Copyright 1965, with permission from Elsevier.

Berglund, H. 1969. Influence of wetting agents on growth of marine multicellular green algae. Vatten, 2:157-165. ISSN:0042-2886.

Bergueiro-López, J.R.; Morales, N.; Domínguez, F. 1993. Research on a dispersing solution for burnt crude oils: “Aegean Sea” oil spill. In Proceedings, Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 7-9, 1993, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technology Development Branch. pp. 1065-1071.

Bergueiro-López, J.R.; Domínguez, F.; Guzma, E.; Morales, N.; Pérez-Navarro, A. 1998. FINASOL OSR 51 biodegradation by the biological activators BIOLEN IG 30 and BIOLEN IC 10. In Proceedings: Twenty-First Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 10 to 12, 1998, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 729-743.
Abstract
Researchers studied the biodegradation of FINASOL OSR 51, in the presence of the biologic activators BIOLEN IG 30 and BIOLEN IC 10. BIOLEN IC 10 and BIOLEN IG 30 degraded the total and anionic dispersants present in the FINASOL OSR 51 at ambient (23°C) and control temperatures (20°C). Maximum degradation efficiency of the total ionic dispersants was obtained with BIOLEN IC 10 after 26 days and in the presence of the biodegradation accelerator INIPOL EAP 22 at 23°C, obtaining a degradation rate of 95.72%. For anionic dispersants, a 95.88% degradation rate was obtained after 28 days using BIOLEN IC 10 and in the presence of INIPOL EAP 22 at 23°C. Researchers found no significant differences in the degradation percentage for the total ionic dispersants after 26 days, when using BIOLEN IC 10 or BIOLEN IG 30 at 23°C and in the presence of INIPOL EAP 22 (95.72% for BIOELN IC vs. 94.47% for BIOLEN IG 30). Similarly, there were no significant differences for the anionic dispersants degradation between the two biological activators at 23°C and in the presence of INIPOL EAP 22, obtaining a 95.88% after 28 days when degradation process occurs with BIOLEN IC 10 and 94.38% for the same conditions with BIOLEN IG 30.

Bergueiro-López, J.R. et al. 1996. Biodegradation of hydrocarbon residuals by biological activators in the presence of INIPOL EAP 22. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 3:4, 273-276. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(97)00027-3.
Abstract
An aged hydrocarbon mixture from an accidental spill gave investigators the opportunity to observe degradation rates using biological amendments. FINASOL OSR 51 dispersant was also present and researchers studied degradation rates associated with this material. from these experiments, investigators were able to determine the degradation process constant, biological oxygen demand, biological final demand, the biological stabilization constant, as well as the stabilization constant for the degradation process.

Bergueiro-López, J.R. et al. 1996. FINASOL OSR 52 active components biodegradation by using the biological activator BIOLEN IG 30. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin , 3:4, 269-272. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(97)00026-1.
Abstract
FINASOL OSR 51 was used in biodegradation tests in the presence of a biological activator (BIOLEN IG 30). Nutrients and oligoelements were added to artificially increase degradation rates. Kinetic and correlation coefficients were determined at ambient temperature and 20°C for up to 26 days after the initial and weekly addition of BIOLEN IG 30.

Betts, D.A.; Golob, R.S. 1982. Planning for a dispersant response. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar: Seminar Held June 15-17, 1982, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 285-294.

Beynon, L.R. 1971. Oil spill dispersants. Journal of the Institute of Petroleum, 57:553, 1-7. ISSN:0020-3068.
Abstract
Dispersants used during the Torrey Canyon cleanup operations were tested, focusing on efficiency and toxicity of the chemicals used during the disaster. The method of assessing dispersants known as the swirling beaker test is described in the appendix of this report.

Beynon, L.R. 1969. Evaluation of dispersants. In Proceedings of API/FWPCA Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. New York: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 209-215.
Abstract
Chemical agents for treating oil pollution have been described variously as “detergents,” “dispersants,” “emulsifying agents,” “solvent emulsifiers,” and so on. In this paper, however, the word “dispersant” will be used to cover materials. The basic way in which dispersants work is that they change the interfacial properties of oil and water, enabling an oil layer to be broken up by agitation into very small droplets which may be readily dispersed in the body of the sea. The ways in which dispersants are applied, and the available techniques for supplying agitation to the treated oil, differ greatly depending on whether or not the oil has come ashore. Very often too, dispersants, which are effective in dealing with floating oil, are completely useless for cleaning beaches, although the reverse is seldom if ever true. There is a need, therefore, for separate methods of assessing the efficiencies of dispersants in combating oil at sea and on shore. It is also necessary to know the effect of dispersant treatment on marine life, so that in alleviating the evil of oil pollution one does not cause unnecessary damage to marine flora and fauna. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss toxicity testing of dispersants. This subject has been covered by Dr. R.G.J. Shelton of the Shellfish Laboratory of the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Rather, it is my purpose to describe what has been done by the Institute of Petroleum (IP) Working Party on “Detergents and their Application” to derive meaningful rules for determining which dispersants should be used for cleaning up oil pollution in various circumstances.
© 1969 with permission from API.

Bhattacharyya, S.; Klerks, P.L.; Nyman, J.A. 2003. Toxicity to freshwater organisms from oils and oil spill chemical treatments in laboratory microcosms. Environmental Pollution, 122:2, 205-215. ISSN:0269-7491. DOI:10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00294-4.
Abstract
Toxicity and temporal changes in toxicity of freshwater-marsh-microcosms containing South Louisiana Crude (SLC) or diesel fuel and treated with a cleaner or dispersant, were investigated using Chironomus tentans, Daphnia pulex, and Oryzias latipes. Bioassays used microcosm water (for D. pulex and O. latipes) or soil slurry (for C. tentans) taken 1,7, 31, and 186 days after treatment. SLC was less toxic than diesel, chemical additives enhanced oil toxicity, the dispersant was more toxic than the cleaner, and toxicities were greatly reduced by day 186. Toxicities were higher in the bioassay with the benthic species than in those with the two water-column species. A separate experiment showed that C. tentans’ sensitivity was intermediate to that of Tubifex tubifex and Hyallela azteca. Freshwater organisms, especially benthic invertebrates, thus appear seriously effected by oil under the worst-case-scenario of our microcosms. Moreover, the cleaner and dispersant tested were poor response options under those conditions.
Reprinted from Environmental Pollution, Volume 122, S. Bhattacharyya, P.L. Klerks, J.A. Nyman, Copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.

Bhosle, N.B.; Row, A. 1983. Effect of dispersants on the growth of indigenous bacterial population and biodegradation of crude oils. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences, 12:3, 194-196. ISSN:0379-5136.

Bhosle, N.B.; Mavinkurve, S. 1984. Effects of dispersants on microbial growth and biodegradation of crude oils. Mahasagar, 17:4, 233-238. ISSN:0542-0938.
Abstract
Four oil spill dispersants when used alone (0.1% V/V) or in combination with Saudi Arabian Crude (0.5% V/V) were non-toxic to Arthrobacter simplex and Candida tropicalis. At a higher concentration of 0.6% (V/V) only D2 was found to be toxic to both the organisms. Dispersant treatment did not increase the bio-degradation of crude oils except D3 in the presence of Bombay High crude oil.
© CSA, 1984.

Binyon, S.J. 1984. Improved additives for the demulsification and recovery of waste oils. Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, 2:1, 57-60. ISSN:0143-7127. DOI:10.1016/S0143-7127(84)90733-6.

Blackall, P.J. 1983. BIOS Project: preliminary results. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar; June 14-16, 1983, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technical Services Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 292-295.

Blackall, P.J.; Sergy, G.A. 1983. The BIOS Project - an update. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 451-455.
Abstract
The Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project, formally begun in March 1980, now is entering the fourth and final year of the planned field work. The primary objectives of this internationally funded project are to: (1) determine if the use of chemical dispersants in the arctic nearshore will reduce or increase the environmental effects of spilled oil, (2) assess the fate of oil, and (3) compare the relative effectiveness of other shoreline protection and cleanup techniques. This paper provides an overview of studies sponsored by the BIOS Project during the first three field seasons. Highlighted are the major oil releases which involved a total of 40 cubic meters of medium gravity crude oil. In addition, the preliminary results of the pre- and post-spill physical, chemical, and biological studies are presented. The physical program studies predicted the proper time and location for the oil releases and monitored the subsequent physical fate and behavior of the oil. The chemical program studies monitored the pre- and post-spill hydrocarbon levels in the water, sediments, and tissue of selected macrobenthic species, and also the environmental chemistry of the study area. The biological program studies to date have characterized the macrobenthic flora and fauna, the microorganisms, and the shorter-term effects of the oil releases on the subtidal biota. The potential ramifications of the BIOS Project's results on future oil spill countermeasure strategies are discussed.
© 1983 with permission from API.

Blackall, P.J.; Sergy, G.A. 1981. The BIOS Project - frontier oil spill countermeasures research. In Proceedings: 1981 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, Georgia. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 167-172.
Abstract
After 18 months of planning, the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project was formally initiated in March 1980. This project marks a major new initiative in oil spill countermeasures development for Canada 's northern frontiers. The primary objectives of this internationally funded project are (1) to determine if the use of chemical dispersants in the Arctic nearshore will reduce or increase the environmental effects of spilled oil, (2) to assess the fate of oil, and (3) to compare the relative effectiveness of other shoreline protection and cleanup techniques. This paper outlines the background and scope of the 4-year project and provides an overview of the first field season's results. Highlighted are the preliminary oil discharges, which took place in August 1980, and which marked the start of studies on the long-term fate of oil on Arctic beaches. In addition, the results of the baseline physical, chemical, and biological studies are presented. The physical program included detailed oceanographic, meteorological, and geomorphological studies. The chemical program determined the background hydrocarbon concentrations in the sediments, the water column, and the tissue of selected macrobenthic species; and also the environmental chemistry of the study area. The biological program characterized the macrobenthic flora and fauna and the micro-organisms that are potentially capable of biodegrading the oil. The physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of the oil were measured in laboratories and in the field. The ramifications of these results on the design of the oil spills scheduled for 1981 are discussed.
© 1981 with permission from API.

Blacklaw, J.R.; Strand, J.A.; Walkup, P.C. 1971. Assessment of oil spill treating agent test methods. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills: June 15-17, 1971. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 253-261.
Abstract
This presentation summarizes a study of currently used laboratory methods for evaluating oil spill treating agents. Work was performed under contract to the American Petroleum Institute. Treating agents were classified as dispersants, sinking agents, sorbents, combustion promoters, biodegradants, gelling agents, and beach cleaners. The mechanisms and chemical reactions controlling the field application of each type of agent were defined. Parameters critical to the evaluation of both the effectiveness and toxicity of each type of agent were thereby identified. Present methods of laboratory measurement were compiled and reviewed for the adequacy of parameter control as well as the appropriateness of the variables measured. It was found that no existing standardized tests are capable of reproducibly and accurately measuring the effectiveness or toxicity of any oil spill treating agent. Some tests, notably those for dispersants, are amenable to improvement such that reliable laboratory methods will result through improved mechanical equipment, temperature control, exposure conditions, agitation level, reagent standardization, and selection of test biota. The study concluded with a delineation of procedures, equipment, and material specifications for laboratory effectiveness and toxicity measurement. These are modified versions of existing methods and it was recommended that they be verified by an appropriate laboratory program.
© 1971 with permission from API.

Blackman, R.A.A. 1974. Toxicity of oil sinking agents. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 5:8, 116-118. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(74)90142-8.
Abstract
Despite recent major improvements in the efficiency of low toxicity oil dispersants, the dispersing capacity of available vessels remains inadequate to deal with a spill of more than 10,000 tons in European waters. In the event of an emergency on a larger scale, it may be necessary to immobilize the oil by sinking it, using sand. Experiments to test the toxic effects of sunken oil masses on benthic animals have been reported previously. This paper describes experiments to assess the possibility of damage to marine organisms from the sinking agents used. The results show that toxic effects are likely to result from the wetting agents and solvents used in the sand sink method of treating oil spills. The risk of harmful effects from this source can be reduced by careful selection of the wetting agent and solvent. 'Armac T' in ethylene glycol is the least toxic combination of those tested.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 5, R.A.A. Blackman, Copyright 1974, with permission from Elsevier.

Blackman, R.A.A.; Franklin, F.L.; Norton, M.G.; Wilson, K.W. 1978. New procedures for the toxicity testing of oil slick dispersants in the United Kingdom. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 9:9, 234-238. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(78)90377-6.
Abstract
Under the Dumping at Sea Act 1974 the use of oil slick dispersants requires a licence from the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in England and Wales. These licences are issued or refused on the basis of tests to assess the toxicity of the dispersant when used at sea or on beaches. This paper describes the rationale behind the development of the two toxicity tests used, together with the test methods adopted and the results of the tests.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 9, R.A.A. Blackman, F.L. Franklin, M.G. Norton, K.W. Wilson, Copyright 1978, with permission from Elsevier.

Blackman, R.A.A. 1977. New Procedures for the Toxicity Testing of Oil Slick Dispersants. Lowestoft, U.K.: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Directorate of Fisheries Research. 7p.

Bleicher, B.; Beauregard, D.; Shier, L.; Means, P. 1995. Developing the U.S. Coast Guard’s airborne dispersant delivery system capability. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 329-338.

Blondina, G.J.; Sowby, M.L.; Ouano, M.T.; Singer, M.M.; Tjeerdema, R.S. 1997. Comparative efficacy of two Corexit dispersants as measured using California’s modified swirling flask test. In Proceedings: Twentieth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 11-13, 1997, Coast Plaza Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 561-573.

Blondina, G.J.; Sowby, M.L.; Ouano, M.T.; Singer, M.M.; Tjeerdema, R.S. 1997. A modified swirling flask efficacy test for oil spill dispersants. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 4:3, 177-185. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(98)00014-0.
Abstract
This paper discusses the adoption of the Swirling Flask Test (SFT) by California as the standard method for evaluating the effectiveness of oil spill treatment products. Differences between the procedures, as adopted by California, and the EPA’s existing SFT method, are discussed.

Blondina, G.J. et al. 1999. Influence of salinity on petroleum accommodation by dispersants. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 5:2, 127-134. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(98)00048-6.
Abstract
The effect of receiving water salinity on the effectiveness of two oil dispersants, Corexits® 9527 and 9500, was investigated using a recently implemented modified version of the Swirling Flask efficacy test. The dispersants were tested with ten different oils, representing a wide range of physical-chemical properties. Test salinities ranged from 0 to 35 ppt, with temperature held constant at 15°C. Results showed Corexit 9500 to be generally more effective on most of the dispersible oils at most salinities, but performance of both products was significantly affected by salinity. Both dispersants performed best at salinities above 25 ppt, with Corexit 9500 maintaining its effectiveness over a fairly wide range of salinities. Correlations between dispersant effectiveness and various oil physical/chemical properties were highly variable.
Reprinted from Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, Volume 5, G.J. Blondina, M.M. Singer, I. Lee, M.T. Ouano, M. Hodgins, R.S. Tjeerdema, M.L. Sowby, Copyright 1999, with permission from Elsevier.

Bloom, S.A. 1970. An oil dispersant’s effect on the microflora of beach sand. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 50:4, 919-923. ISSN:0025-3154.
Abstract
The effects of 'Corexit 7664', an oil dispersant, alone and in combination with oil in sand columns were determined by oxygen uptake, 14C uptake, and chlorophyll analysis. 'Corexit' was observed to have no obvious deleterious effects within the experimental system under the conditions of periodic and continuous additions ranging from 5 x 102 ppm to 105 ppm and in combination with Kuwait crude oil (1.2 kg oil/m2 to 0.12 kg ‘Corexit’/m2). No change was observed in chlorophyll or 14C uptake. Heightened oxygen uptake was noted for continuous addition of 'Corexit' (0.060 ml. O2 hr-1 cm-1), for the oil control (0.090 ml. O2 hr-1 cm-1), and for oil plus 'Corexit' (0.059 ml. O2 hr-1 cm-1). Caloric content of the oil and oxygen uptake indicated and extended degradation period.
© Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Blumer, M. 1971. Scientific aspects of the oil spill problem. Environmental Affairs, 1:1, 54-73.

Bobra, A.; Mackay, D.; Shiu, W.Y. 1979. Distribution of hydrocarbons among oil, water and vapor phases during oil dispersant toxicity tests. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 23:4-5, 558-565. DOI:10.1007/BF01770003.
Abstract
A major consideration in determining the desirability of using dispersants to clear oilspills is the extent to which the dispersant alters the exposure of water organisms to the oil. To assess the toxicity and environmental risk it is necessary to calculate the distribution of specific hydrocarbons between the oil phase, the aqueous phase and the vapour phase during a toxicity test. Three factors are involved in these tests, the effect of the dissolved hydrocarbon, the effect of dispersed oil particles and the effect of the dispersant chemical, each being dependent on different factors of concentration, size, etc. A set of equations has been derived to permit calculation of the partition of a hydrocarbon, between the various phases, to be used in the design of toxicity tests.
© CSA, 1980.

Bobra, A.M.; Abernathy, S.; Wells, P.G.; Mackay, D. 1984. Recent toxicity studies at the University of Toronto. In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 82-90.

Bobra, A.M.; Shiu, W.Y.; Mackay, D.; Goodman, R.H. 1989. Acute toxicity of dispersed fresh and weathered crude oil and dispersants to Daphnia magna. Chemosphere, 19:8-9, 1199-1222. ISSN:0045-6535. DOI:10.1016/0045-6535(89)90068-4.
Abstract
The toxicity of fresh and weathered crude oils and chemical dispersants to Daphnia magna has been investigated using a novel system which eliminates evaporative losses and maintains oil in emulsified form at 5 and 20°C. Biossays were conducted for dispersants alone, for water soluble fractions of crude oils obtained at various water/oil ratios, for physical dispersions of crude oils and for chemical dispersions of crude oils. The results suggest that generally the dispersed oil particles are the primary sources of toxicity, with the dissolved oil and dispersants contributing relatively little toxicity. The toxicity of the oil particles appears to be influenced by particle size. A mathematical model has been prepared and calibrated using these data, and gives a satisfactory representation of the observed toxicity of chemically dispersed oil.
Reprinted from Chemosphere, Volume 19, A.M. Bobra, W.Y. Shiu, D. Mackay, R.H. Goodman, Copyright 1989, with permission from Elsevier.

Bobra, M.A.; Chau, A.; Mackay, D. 1984. What’s new in chemical dispersion? In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 257-277.

Bocard, C. 1985. L’Operation Protecmar. Bulletin du Cedre, n°22:6-10.

Bocard, C.; Gatellier, C. 1981. Operation Protecmar. Spill Technology Newsletter, 6:2, 54-85. ISSN:0381-4459.

Bocard, C.; Renault, P.; Croquette, J. 1979. Cleaning products used in operations after the Amoco Cadiz disaster. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca. March, 1979. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 163-167.
Abstract
Controlling the Amoco Cadiz spill and cleaning the sea and the coast of Brittany were made highly difficult by rough sea conditions and the location of the grounding. The rapid formation of “chocolate mousse” limited severely the efficiency of the different techniques used. At sea, restrictions on the use of dispersants led to use of both sinking and absorbing agents, including an experimental product, rubber powder. On the coast, several types of chemicals were used or tried; emulsion breakers, sorbents, dispersants, and biodegrading products. Practical examples were given of how some of these products could help the cleanup operations on beaches, rocks, and piers and the handling of oil, polluted sand, and debris. The use of sorbents demonstrated that, despite the additional cost, this approach could be helpful if adequate operational techniques for such use were available.
© 1979 with permission from API.

Bocard, C.; Castaing, G.; Ducreyx, J.; Gatellier, C. 1986. Fate of chemically dispersed oil related to sedimentation. Water Science and Technology, 18:4-5, 301. ISSN:0273-1223.
Abstract
This report describes a procedure for measuring dispersant efficiency by measuring the amount of chemically dispersed oils that affix to different sediments. Mass balance of oils and solids was obtained by quantitative analysis of settled, resurfaced, and washed out oil fractions.

Bocard, C.; Merlin, F. 1981. Recent progress in treatment of hydrocarbon layers on the sea: use of dispersants and agglomerants in the framework of Protecmar operations. In Amoco Cadiz: Fates and Effects of the Oil Spill: Proceedings of the International Symposium, Centre Océanologique de Bretagne, Brest (France), November 19-22, 1979. Paris: Centre National pour l'Exploitation des Océans. pp. 809-819. ISBN:290272099.

Bocard, C.; Castaing, G.; Gatellier, C. 1984. Chemical oil dispersion in trials at sea and in laboratory tests: the key role of dilution processes. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 125-142. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
To minimize the ecological impact of oil at sea, dispersants are used to spread the spill across a large amount of water and thus make hydrocarbon levels low enough to be sublethal. Such an objective demands two correlative conditions: (1) that an oil-in-water emulsion can be obtained by adding the dispersant and (2) that rapid dilution conditions are provided by a downward motion of oil droplets and wind-induced velocity shear between surface and subsurface. In September 1981, two 6-m3 slicks in the Mediterranean Sea were treated by two concentrated dispersants. More than 1500 samples were taken at different depths during several hours following treatment and were analyzed by a differential method to measure separately oil and dispersant. Direct measures were also recorded by a continuous flow of water through a nephelometer and a spectrofluorometer. Despite apparently complete emulsification of the slick, the most efficient dispersant did not preclude some of the oil from resurfacing 6 h after treatment. The short-term fate of dispersed oil was therefore under the control of the sea conditions, which limit dilution processes. Because any laboratory test in closed vessel cannot duplicate dilution factors, a new approach was developed to measure simultaneously the rate of dispersion and the behavior of test marine animals submitted to variable concentrations of potentially toxic substances during the flow of dispersed oil through a continuous system.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Bocard, C.; Castaing, G. 1986. Dispersant effectiveness evaluation in a dynamic flow-through system: the IFP dilution test. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:6, 433-444. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80024-7.
Abstract
This paper describes a dynamic flow-through test developed by the Institut Français du Pétrole for the assessment of dispersant efficiency, as well as dispersant toxicity. The procedure can be used to examine the effect of dispersant oil ratios and physical constraints on dispersant effectiveness.

Bocard, C. et al. 1987. Protecmar: the French experience from a seven-year dispersant offshore trials program. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 225-230.
Abstract
Six campaigns of dispersant offshore trials were conducted from 1979 to 1985 off the French Mediterranean and Brittany coasts. Altogether, 30 slicks were treated with several dispersants applied from ships by different spraying systems, from helicopters equipped with an underslung bucket, and from a Canadair CL 215 aircraft. Despite the difficulty of getting a mass balance of dispersed oil on the basis of oil concentration measurements and remote sensing techniques, the trials resulted in identifying the different effects of dispersants (short term dispersion of oil, delayed dissemination) and the limiting parameters (minimum energy of sea surface, high dispersant/oil ratio needed, negative herding effect). Different techniques were tested in order to optimize the application of dispersants in different situations: use of variable flow-rate system to spray neat concentrates from ships, methods of operating ships and aircraft to reach a selective distribution of dispersant and get good coverage of slicks.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Bocard, C. et al. 1986. Summary of Protecmar experiments, the French dispersant offshore trials program. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:6, 471-484. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80027-2.
Abstract
This report recounts 30 offshore trials in six groupings between 1979 to 1985 off the French Mediterranean and Brittany coasts. Several types of dispersants were used, applied by ship (using different spraying systems), helicopter (with underslung bucket) and airplane (Canadair CL 215). To find the most optimal method, various techniques were employed. These included the use of a variable flow-rate system to spray neat concentrates from ships, and methods of directing dispersing craft from sea and air for enhanced coverage. Effectiveness of Dispersant use was distinguished between primary effects (dilution of smallest oil droplets) and secondary effects (increased long-term natural dissemination). Limiting factors included sea-surface energy, subsurface currents and dispersant/oil ratios.

Bocard, C. et al. 1977. New concept of oil dispersion in view of cleanup by degradation. In Proceedings: 1977 Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup: March 8-10, 1977, New Orleans, Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 407-410.
Abstract
Some misunderstanding has arisen from evidence of deleterious effects of oil dispersion, leading to the conclusion that such a treatment is more dangerous than the pollution itself. In fact, the main objective is to promote the speed of degradation by parcelling of oil, the droplets becoming widespread and bursting at the ocean surface to form films which quickly will disintegrate under microbial actions. With new dispersant formulations, the hydrocarbon pollutants will tend to separate out from sea water so that living organisms would not be injured in the comparatively clean water below. Meanwhile, by its chemical composition, the dispersant will bring nutrients to the medium and, moreover, will remain within the oil phase.
© 1977 with permission from API.

Bock, J.K.; Mann, H. 1972. Toxicity of oil-spill removers. Archiv für Fischereiwissenschaft, 23:1, 64-67. ISSN:0003-9063.
Abstract
14 different samples of special oil dispersing products were examined with regard to the toxicity they cause in organisms of freshwater, brackish water and seawater. From the experiments resulted that concerning their toxic effect a great number of the compds are to be grouped into class III of the classification according to Hellmann and Knopp, which means that up to the highest examined conc of 200 mg/l no toxicity exists. A specially low degree of toxicity was found in compd VIII. These results have shown that products of the groups fatty-acid-polyglycolic-ester are of practical importance.
© CSA, 1972.

Bode, H.; Ernst, R.; Arditti, J. 1978. Biological effects of surfactants, III. Hydra as a highly sensitive assay animal. Environmental Pollution, 17:3, 175-185. ISSN:0269-7491. DOI:10.1016/0013-9327(78)90035-6.

Bodennec, G.; Desmarquest, J.P.; Jensen, B.; Kantin, R. 1987. Evolution of hydrocarbons and bacterial activity in the marine sediments contaminated by crude oil overflow and treated. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 29:3, 153-178. ISSN:0306-7319. DOI:10.1080/03067318708079834.
Abstract
The fate of an experimental oil pollution of intertidal sediments in a sheltered beach of North Brittany (France) has been investigated over a 16-month period. Chemical treatments were applied to two of the three contaminated plots by pre-mixing oil respectively with dispersant and biodegrading agents. The physico-chemical and bacteriological characteristics of the polluted areas were followed with the purpose of identifying the limiting parameters for oil microbial degradation and the effect of treatment. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the oiled sediments did not change significantly during the experimental period. Spectrofluorimetric and chromatographic data showed that the main evolution of oil concerns the degradation of n-alkanes and the removal of light aromatics. Biodegradation of hydrocarbons occurred at a measurable rate only during the warm seasons (average temperature 18± 2°C) causing after sixteen months the disappearance of more than 80% of the n-alkanes fraction independently of the pollution sediment level and the chemical treatment of the experimental plots. However, the biodegradation of n-alkanes proceeded during the first months, at different rates, inversely depending on oil content in the collected samples. The main limiting factor is dissolved oxygen according to the fact that spilled oil was located at 3-5cm depth in a poorly oxygenated zone characterized by low redox potential. Nutrients were not a limiting factor probably due to domestic and agricultural inputs in this area. A marked bacterial growth was observed two weeks after the oil spill with a relative increase in hydrocarbon degrading bacteria with respect to total heterotrophs. Degradation rates, based on C14 n-hexadecane experiments, seem to follow the same way than specific bacterial counts (plate technique). Specific bacteria are always high at the end of our 16 months' field experimentation. In the laboratory as well as in the field experiments, the same behaviour of untreated and chemically treated oil was observed in partially anaerobic sediment.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from Taylor & Francis. http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a769217698~db=jour~order=page.

Boehm, P.D. 1984. The comparative fate of chemically dispersed and untreated oils in an Arctic nearshore environment. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 338-360. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
The distribution and environmental fate of petroleum hydrocarbons introduced into the nearshore environment of Cape Hatt, Baffin Island, Canada, during two controlled experimental discharges of a Venezuelan (Lagomedio) crude oil have been studied. An analytical program based on a combination of ultraviolet/fluorescence studies, high resolution gas chromatography, and computer-assisted gas chromatographic mass spectrometry has been used to examine several hundred oil, seawater, sediment, sediment trap, surface floc, and benthic animal (seven species) samples to determine the distribution, transport, and weathering of oil spilled in two scenarios: as untreated oil on the surface and as chemically dispersed oil discharged below the surface. Conclusions are drawn about the weathering of oil in the two scenarios, transport of low and high molecular weight hydrocarbons into the water column and their persistence, the sedimentation of oil, the incorporation of oil into the sediment via sedimentation on to the surface floc and direct penetration of the sediment/water interface, and the uptake and depuration of untreated and chemically dispersed oils by seven species of filter feeders and deposit feeders in the subtidal benthos.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Boehm, P.D. et al. 1985. Comparative fate of chemically dispersed and untreated oil in the Arctic: Baffin Island Oil Spill studies 1980-1983. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 561-569.
Abstract
Two experimental oil spill studies designed to assess the comparative short and long term fates and effects of chemically dispersed and untreated nearshore discharges in the Arctic were undertaken as part of the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project. The fates of oil in the water column, in subtidal and beach sediments, and in five species of filter- and deposit-feeding animals were investigated. Analytical results indicate that the discharge of the chemically dispersed oil caused a large but short-lived chemical impact on the water column (up to 50 ppm), a significant initial bioaccumulation of oil, and little sediment impact. In contrast, the untreated oil, allowed to beach, did not have a significant water column impact, but did result in a large scale landfall, continual long term erosion of oil off the beach, and increasing oil levels in subtidal sediments and deposit-feeding animals.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Boehm, P.D. et al. 1987. Comparative fate of chemically dispersed and beached crude oil in subtidal sediments of the arctic nearshore. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 133-148. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
A three-year investigation was conducted to examine the incorporation of petroleum hydrocarbons (PHC) into subtidal sediments following experimental releases of oil during the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project experiments. The concentrations of PHC were determined by synchronous scanning UV/Fluorescence spectroscopy, while the composition of residual saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons was determined by gas chromatography and gas chromatographic mass spectrometry. A pre-spill sampling and four post-spill samplings (one day, two weeks, one year and two years after the release) were conducted in each test bay. After the surface release and beaching of non-dispersant treated oil (Bay 11), accumulation of PHC at levels of 1-10 µg·g-1 was noted in subtidal sediments within two weeks. Concentrations steadily increased over the ensuing two years, so that two years after the release, up to 10% of the originally beached oil was present in subtidal sediments. Concentrations of up to 400 µg·g-1 were detected in the shallow offshore sediments. All oil residues in surface sediment appeared to be confined to the top 0-2 cm of the sediment column. The eroding oil from the Bay 11 beach was compositionally quite heterogeneous, with weathered, biodegraded oil, as well as relatively unweathered oil, found on the beach and in the offshore sediments. Biodegradation of oil appeared to be restricted to the beached oil, with no significant degradation apparently occurring subtidally. After two years, the offshore oil residues still contanined low molecular weight alkanes as well as alkylated naphthalenes. The situation in Bay 9, where chemically dispersed oil was discharged near the bottom, was quite different. In spite of a large water column exposure, the bottom sediments never contained more than 10 µg·g-1 of oil. Of this amount of oil, a significant fraction (20%) of the PHC was initially associated with the surface flocculent layer. Levels of oil in the Bay 9 sediments were on the order of 1-3 µg·g-1 one year after the release. Sediment PHC levels in the other less exposed bays (Bays 10 and 7) never exceeded 3 µg·g-1.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Boney, A.D. 1970. Toxicity studies with an oil-spill emulsifier and the green alga Prasinocladus marinus. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 50:2, 461-473. ISSN:0025-2154.
Abstract
Cyst phases of the green alga Prasinocladus marinus (Cienk.) Waern. [Order Pyramimonadales; Class Prasinophyceae] have been used in an investigation of the toxic properties of an oil-spill emulsifier BP 1002, and of its solvent and surfactant fractions. Various aspects of a rejuvenation process (e.g. reappearance of chloroplast and pigments; formation of pyrenoids and starch sheath; onset of cell division and liberation of motile cells) have all been utilized as a means of assay in addition to observations on cell viability. The 'aged' cysts were more tolerant of all types of toxic agents than were the young non-motile cells. The surfactant fractions were more toxic when used alone, and the solvent fraction alone more toxic than the compounded BP 1002. The application of any of the toxic agents at low temperature (4 °C) resulted in a marked reduction in their effects at high concentrations (e.g. 500 ppm) although rapid changes in cell condition (chloroplasts, pyrenoids) were observed. The toxic effect was appreciably increased with both 'aged' and 'young' cells when accompanied by a lowering in salinity. Aeration of the toxic solutions caused a significant lowering of toxicity with both BP 1002 and the solvent fraction. Chloroplast pigment regeneration in 'recovering' cysts was a sensitive means of assaying toxic effects.
© Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Boney, A.D. 1968. Experiments with some detergents and certain intertidal algae. In Carthy, J.D.; Arthur, R. (eds.). The Biological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium held at the Orielton Field Centre, Pembroke, Wales, on 17th, 18th and 19th February 1968. Field Studies, 2(Suppl.). London: Field Studies Council. pp. 55-72.

Bonn Agreement. 1988. Position Paper on Dispersants. London: Bonn Agreement. 23p. ISBN:1870992008.

Bonner, J.; Page, C.; Fuller, C. 2003. Meso-scale testing and development of test procedures to maintain mass balance. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 47:9-12, 406-414. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(03)00201-7.
Abstract
The Conrad Blucher Institute for Surveying and Science (Texas A&M University––Corpus Christi) has conducted numerous petroleum experiments at the Shoreline Environmental Research Facility (Corpus Christi, Texas, USA). The meso-scale facility has multiple wave tanks, permitting some control in experimental design of the investigations, but allowing for real-world conditions. This paper outlines the evolution of a materials balance approach in conducting petroleum experiments at the facility. The first attempt at a materials balance was during a 1998 study on the fate/effects of dispersant use on crude oil. Both water column and beach sediment samples were collected. For the materials balance, the defined environmental compartments for oil accumulation were sediments, water column, and the water surface, while the discharge from the tanks was presumed to be the primary sink. The “lessons learned” included a need to quantify oil adhesion to the tank surfaces. This was resolved by adhering strips of the polymer tank lining to the tank sides that could be later removed and extracted for oil. Also, a protocol was needed to quantify any floating oil on the water surface. A water surface (oil slick) quantification protocol was developed, involving the use of solid-phase extraction disks. This protocol was first tested during a shoreline cleaner experiment, and later refined in subsequent dispersant effectiveness studies. The effectiveness tests were designed to simulate shallow embayments which created the need for additional adjustments in the tanks. Since dispersant efficacy is largely affected by hydrodynamics, it was necessary to scale the hydrodynamic conditions of the tanks to those expected in our prototype system (Corpus Christi Bay, Texas). The use of a scaled model permits the experiment to be reproduced and/or evaluated under different conditions. To minimize wave reflection in the tank, a parabolic wave dissipater was built. In terms of materials balance, this design reduced available surface area as a sink for oil adsorption.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 47, J. Bonner, C. Page, C. Fuller, Copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.

Borst, M.; Smith, G.F. 1981. Dispersant Application System for the U.S. Coast Guard 32-Foot WPB (Waterways Patrol Boat): Final Report. Leonardo, N.J.: Mason and Hanger-Silas Mason Co., Inc. 32p.

Bostrom, A.; Fischbeck, P.; Kucklick, J.H.; Walker, A.H. 1995. A Mental Models Approach for Preparing Summary Reports on Ecological Issues Related to Dispersant Use. Washington, D.C.: Marine Spill Response Corporation. 28p.

Bostrom, A.; Fischbeck, P.; Kucklik, J.H.; Pond, R.; Walker, A.H. 1997. Ecological Issues in Dispersant Use: Decision-Makers Perceptions and Information Needs. Atlanta, Ga.: School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology. 86p.

Bowler, B. 1985. Laboratory Studies on the Effect of Oil Dispersant on Evaporation and Dissolution. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 79p.

Bowler, B. 1984. Dispersants Influence on Evaporation and Dissolution of Oil on Seawater. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 27p.
Abstract
Using the McKay method, dispersants were used to determine what, if any, effect they have on how C1-C10 hydrocarbons found in oil on the water surface distributes to air and water phases. Research focused on time of distribution after oil/oil and dispersants were added to differing water samples. Statfjord and Ekofisk crude oils were used in these experiments.

Boyd, J.N.; Scholz, D.; Walker, A.H. 2001. Effects of oil and chemically dispersed oil in the environment. In 2001 International Oil Spill Conference: Global Strategies for Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: March 26-29, 2001, Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1213-1216. URL
Abstract
This paper describes the last phase of a project sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute (API). Using risk communication methodologies, this project was designed to produce three dispersant issue papers as unbiased reference sources that present technical information and study results in non-scientific language for the layman. The third issue paper, currently in press, was designed to provide the decision-maker and layman with an understanding of how spilled oil and chemically dispersed oil affect resources in the environment. Synopses of key sections of this paper are presented here. Understanding exposure and effects is a complex task. Exposure to oil alone can cause a variety of adverse effects, including slowed growth, reduced reproduction, and death. Adding dispersants to spilled oil will change the way resources are affected. Today’s dispersants are mixtures of solvents and surfactants and, although they can be toxic, are less dangerous than the dispersant products used in the 1960s and 1970s. How the addition of chemical dispersants to spilled oil will change the way resources are impacted has been a difficult question to answer. Decision makers need to understand several concepts to evaluate how different resources will be affected by oil and chemically dispersed oil during a spill. These include understanding toxicity, what the different routes of exposure are for an organism, how resources from different areas (e.g., water column, water surface, bottom dwelling, or intertidal areas) typically are affected by oil exposure, and how the addition of chemical dispersants changes their exposure to oil. These topics are addressed in this paper.
© 2001 with permission from API.

Boyd, J.N. et al. 2001. Effects of Oil and Chemically Dispersed Oil in the Environment. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. 50p. URL

Brady, B.A. 2002. Oil Spill Dispersants and Temperate Marine Environments: A Literature Review to Support Development of Dispersant Use Protocols for Victoria: Report to Marine Safety Victoria. Queenscliff, Vic.: Marine and Freshwater Resources Institute. 86 leaves. ISBN:1741062926.

Bragin, G.E.; Clark, J.B.; Pace, C.B. 1994. Comparison of Physically and Chemically Dispersed Crude Oil Toxicity Under Continuous and Spiked Exposure Scenarios. Washington, D.C.: Marine Response Spill Corporation, Research & Development. 28p.

Bragin, G.E.; Coelho, G.; Febbo, E.; Clark, J.B.; Aurand, D. 1999. Coastal oilspill simulation system comparison of oil and chemically dispersed oil released in near-shore environments: biological effects. In Proceedings: Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 2 to 4, 1999, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 671-683.
Abstract
An investigation of crude oil and dispersed oil was undertaken at the Coastal Oil Spill Simulation System facility in Corpus Christi, Texas. This study encompassed topics such as the transport, fate, and environmental effects of a nearshore spill either untreated or dispersed with Corexit® 9500. Biological effects of a nearshore treatment were determined using caged organisms from different parts of the coastal zone, including intertidal (oysters, shrimp, fish), infaunal (polychaetes), and shoreline (snails and fiddler crabs). Differences in response to types of spill were not observed, but other environmental factors showed the potential benefits of dispersant use.

Brakstad, O.G.; Faksness, L.G. 2000. Biodegradation of water-accommodated fractions and dispersed oil in the seawater column. In Health, Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: SPE International Conference on Health Safety and Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production: Proceedings: 26-28 June, 2000, Stavanger Forum, Stavanger, Norway (CD-ROM). Richardson, Tx.: Society of Petroleum Engineers. (no page information available).

Brandvik P.J.; Rainuzzo J.; Overrein I.; Bredesen J.; Crescenzi F. Testing of the EPS Biosurfactant Used as an Oil Spill Dispersant and as a Dispersant for Dietary Oils Used in Fish Farming. Trondheim, Norway: SINTEF. 64p.

Brandvik, P.J.; Daling, P.S. 1990. Statistical experimental design optimization of dispersant’s performance. In Proceedings: Thirteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 6-8, 1990, Chateau Lacombe, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 243-254. ISBN:0662575350.

Brandvik, P.J.; Daling, P.S. 1992. Statistical Experimental Design in the Optimization of Dispersants Performance. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 22p.
Abstract
The variation in performance of commercial dispersants is large. Furthermore, the performance of a specific dispersant can also show a large variation among different crudes and petroleum products. When a decision has been made to use dispersants in a given oil spill situation, it is crucial to select a dispersant that is formulated to give high effectiveness for the actual oil type. To enhance the optimization of the dispersant and to reduce the number of experiments needed for development of new products, statistical experimental design has been used together with multivariate analysis. This combined technique has proved to be very powerful in the optimization of dispersants. The optimized formulation has been effectively worked out for different surfactant combinations tested on a wide range of oil qualities. As a result, Continental Shelf Institute (IKU) has developed a new dispersant that is specially formulated for high effectiveness on weathered North Sea crudes. The optimization technique used is presented here together with the measured performance of the new dispersant on both fresh and weathered evaporated (or "topped"), photo-oxidized and water-in-oil emulsified crudes and petroleum products. The effectiveness of the new dispersant is also compared to commercial products.
© CSA, 1990.

Brandvik, P.J.; Moldestad, M.Ø.; Daling, P.S. 1992. Laboratory testing of dispersants under arctic conditions. In Proceedings, Fifteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 10-12, 1992, Westin Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. pp. 123-134. ISBN:0662590503.

Brandvik, P.J.; Lewis, A.; Daling, P.S.; Strøm-Kristiansen, T. 1997. On-land and offshore testing of a new helicopter bucket for dispersant application - response 3000D. In Proceedings: Twentieth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 11-13, 1997, Coast Plaza Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 499-519.

Brandvik, P.J. 1997. Optimisation of Oil Spill Dispersants on Weathered Oils. A New Approach Using Experimental Design and Multivariate Data Analysis. Trondheim, Norway: Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet. 187p. ISBN:8278610304.

Brandvik, P.J. 1998. Statistical simulation as an effective tool to evaluate and illustrate the advantage of experimental designs and response surface methods. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 42:1-2, 51-61. ISSN:0169-7439. DOI:10.1016/S0169-7439(98)00008-2.
Abstract
Authors discuss the benefits of using statistical simulation as a time- and cost-saving procedure to traditional testing methods. In this paper, a statistical simulation was used to evaluate three experimental designs and their success in analyzing process variables of surfactants in an oil spill dispersant and a quality describing variable of dispersant effectiveness. Statistical simulation was found to be an effective method of evaluating and illustrating the benefits of using designed experiments.

Brandvik, P.J.; Daling, P.S. 1998. Optimisation of oil spill dispersant composition by mixture design and response surface methods. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 42:1-2, 63-72. ISSN:0169-7439. DOI:10.1016/S0169-7439(98)00009-4.
Abstract
Oil spill dispersants are used to enhance the rate of natural dispersion of an oil spill at sea. Dispersants remove the oil slick from the sea surface and dilute the oil as small droplets in the water column. The large increase in the oil-water interface due to oil droplet formation increases the biodegradation of the oil by natural occurring micro-organisms. Mixture design (simplex-centroid) and response surface methods have in an earlier simulation study [P.J. Brandvik. Statistical simulation as an effective tool to evaluate and illustrate the advantage of experimental designs and response surface methods. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems (submitted for publication).] proved to be an effective tool to enhance optimisation of oil spill dispersant and to reduce the number of experiments needed for development of new products. This proposed multivariate method is representing a new approach within the development of oil spill dispersants. The main objective for the work presented in this paper was to verify the performance of this new approach within this area on real laboratory data. This combined technique using mixture design and response surface methods has been verified to be a powerful and cost reducing approach in dispersant optimisation. New dispersant formulations for both crude oils and bunker fuels have been formulated and verified by measurements to have high effectiveness.
Reprinted from Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, Volume 42, P.J. Brandvik, P.S. Daling, Copyright 1998, with permission from Elsevier.

Brandvik, P.J.; Daling, P.S. 1998. Optimising oil spill dispersants as a function of oil type and weathering degree: A multivariate approach using partial least squares (PLS). Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 42:1-2, 73-91. ISSN:0169-7439. DOI:10.1016/S0169-7439(98)00006-9.
Abstract
This is last of three papers concerning multivariate optimisation of oil spill dispersants. Dispersants are used in oil spill response operations to enhance the natural dispersion of an oil slick at sea as small oil droplets in the water column. The first paper in this series proposes a multivariate approach for dispersant optimisation based on simulations with different experimental designs. The second paper verifies the usefulness of this approach using real laboratory data. This multivariate approach is based on designed experiments and response surface methods and represents a new approach within the dispersant development. The work described in this third paper shows how the PLS (Partial Least Squares) algorithm can be used to predict optimised dispersant composition as a function of oil type and degree of weathering. This is done by characterisation of the oil type and weathering degree by principal component analysis (PCA). Score values from the first and second principal component are used to select oil type and weathering degree for the calibration samples. Together with selected surfactants the score values are used as parameters for a new 25-1 fractional factorial design. The data from this factorial design are used as a calibration set for predicting optimal dispersant composition as a function of oil type and weathering degree. The experimental design used in this study (simplex-centroid for response surface modelling and fractional factorial design) combined with PLS modelling has made it possible to gain new basic knowledge concerning optimal dispersant composition for different oil types and degrees of weathering. The final optimised dispersant was verified to have a high effectiveness on a broad selection of oil types and a low toxicity. It also had the highest effectiveness and the lowest toxicity when compared to a selection of commercially available products.
Reprinted from Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, Volume 42, P.J. Brandvik, P.S. Daling, Copyright 1998, with permission from Elsevier.

Brandvik, P.J.; Daling, P.S.; Lewis, A.; Lunel, T. 1995. Measurements of dispersed oil concentrations by in-situ UV fluorescence during the Norwegian experimental oil spill with Sture blend. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 519-535.

Brandvik, P.J.; Knudsen, O.Ø.; Moldestad, M.Ø.; Daling, P.S. 1995. Laboratory testing of dispersants under arctic conditions. In Lane, P. (ed.). The Use of Chemicals in Oil Spill Response. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 191-206. ISBN:0803119992.
Abstract
The effectiveness of relevant dispersants for use under "Arctic conditions" has been tested with the IFP dilution test. "Arctic conditions" in this context are defined as low temperature (0ºC) and water salinities varying between 0.5% and 3.5%. The study was performed in three steps with a screening activity first, where 14 dispersants were tested on water-in-oil (w/o) emulsions from two weathered oil types. In the next step five dispersants were tested on both weathered water free oils and w/o emulsions from four different oil types. As a third step, dispersant effectiveness as a function of salinity (0.5 to 3.5%) was tested with the most effective dispersants at high and low salinity. The results from this study shows that many of the most used dispersants which previously have shown an excellent effectiveness at high sea water salinity (3.5%) may give a very low effectiveness at low salinity (0.5%). Recently developed products especially designed for low salinity use (e.g. Inipol IPF) are very effective at low salinities, but suffer from a rather poor effectiveness at higher salinities. This is of significant operational importance in Arctic oil spill combat operations since the salinity of the surface water may vary due to ice melting. This study of dispersants' effectiveness under Arctic conditions shows the need for development of dispersants with high effectiveness both at low temperature (0ºC) and over a wide range of salinities (3.5% to 0.5%). Dispersant development has been a limited but important activity at IKU for the last five years and one of the objectives for an ongoing Arctic program at IKU is to develop such new dispersants for use under Arctic conditions.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Brandvik, P.J.; Singsaas, I.; Daling, P.S. 2004. Oil spill R&D in Norwegian Arctic waters with special focus on large-scale oil weathering experiments. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2004 Conference, Trondheim, Norway (CD-ROM). Horten, Norway: Norwegian Oil Spill Control Association (NOSCA). 18p.

Brandvik, P.J. et al. 1991. Chemical Dispersability Testing of Fresh and Weathered Oils: An Extended Study with Eight Oil Types. Trondheim, Norway: SINTEF. 78p.

Brandvik, P.J. et al. 1993. Testing of Dispersants Under Arctic Conditions: A Laboratory Study. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 50p.

Brandvik, P.J. et al. 1991. Dispersability Testing of Artificial Blended Oils - Gullfaks Crude with Different Contents of Wax and Asphaltene Added. Trondheim, Norway: SINTEF. 23p.

Brandvik, P.J. et al. 1996. The Norwegian sea trial 1995 offshore testing of two dispersant systems and simulation of an underwater pipeline leakage. A summary paper. In Proceedings, Nineteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1996, Sandman Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 1395-1416.

Brannon, E.L. et al. 1986. Homing of adult chinook salmon after brief exposure to whole and dispersed crude oil. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 115:6, 823-827. ISSN:1548-8659. DOI:10.1577/1548-8659(1986).
Abstract
Chinook salmon returning to natal areas for spawning were captured, exposed to oil, dispersant (Tween 85, Span 80, and solvent combination), or oil/dispersant mixtures for 1 hour, held for 20-22 hours, and then displaced 5 km downstream. Results indicate that exposure to dispersant and oil/dispersant mixtures did not impact homing migration, nor days spent returning to hatchery site.

Bratbak, G.; Heldal, M.; Knutsen, G. 1982. Correlation of dispersant effectiveness and toxicity of oil dispersants towards the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardti. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 13:19, 351-353. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(82)90039-X.
Abstract
Using synchronous cultures of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardti, the toxicities of mixtures of Ekofisk crude oil and oil dispersants were measured. Sixteen so-called concentrates and 10 solvent-based dispersants were tested. The dispersing effectiveness of these compounds with respect to the Ekofisk crude oil was also measured. The concentrates were tested undiluted as well as diluted using algal growth medium (2% salinity) and artificial sea water (33% salinity) as dispersing liquid. The solvent-based compounds were tested in algal medium. For all compounds we found significant correlations between their toxicity and their effectiveness in dispersing the Ekofisk oil, such that the more effective the compound, the more toxic it was.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 13, G. Bratbak, M. Heldal, G. Knutsen, Copyright 1982, with permission from Elsevier.

Bratten, B.; Granmo, A.; Lange, R. 1972. Tissue swelling in Mytilus edulis L. induced by exposure to a nonionic surface active agent. Norwegian Journal of Zoology, 20:2, 137-140. ISSN:0029-6864.

Brekne, T.M.; Holmemo, S.; Skeie, G.M. 2003. Optimizing offshore combat of oil spills - development of new booms and helicopter-based application of dispersants. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1279-1284. URL
Abstract
There is an increasing focus on offshore combat of oil spills on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS). One result of this focus is a change from field specific to area specific contingency, moving from many medium sized oil spill combat vessels, to fewer and more robust systems and vessels. An important element in the emerging configuration is the use of helicopter based chemical dispersant systems, permanently located on offshore installations. An increasing diversity, of oil types being produced, configuration of installations, water depths and geographic location, are all factors that require a robust, mobile and flexible oil spill response. The Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) has recently initiated development of new technology, as projects under NOFO’s Research & Development Programme. Three of these projects address the development of improved heavy offshore booms, applying new principles for containment of oil, and a heavy duty skimmer optimized for mobility. A fourth project addresses the development of a system for helicopter based application of chemical dispersants, optimized for offshore storage and maintenance. This paper presents the status for and experience from these projects, as well as the plan for testing and verification of this new technology.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Brekne, T.M.; Holmemo, S.; Engen, F.; Skeie, G.M. 2004. Norwegian Clean Seas Association for Operating Companies (NOFO) – research and development program for next generation Arctic recovery equipment. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2004 Conference, Trondheim, Norway (CD-ROM). Horten, Norway: Norwegian Oil Spill Control Association (NOSCA). 14p.

Bresch, H.; Ockenfels, H. 1977. The influence of tween surfactants on the development of the sea urchin embryo. Naturwissenschaften, 64:11, 593-594. ISSN:0028-1042. DOI:10.1007/BF00450654.

Briant, J.; Gatellier, C. 1971. Prevention and the fight against pollution in the course of drilling operations and production in the sea. IV. Treatment of spills by dispersion and degradation. Revue de L'Institut Français du Pétrole et Annales des Combustibles Liquides, 26:9, 802-811. ISSN:0020-2274.

Bridié, A.L.; Wanders, T.H.; Zegveld, W.; van der Heij, H.B. 1980. Formation, prevention and breaking of sea water in crude oil emulsions ‘chocolate mousses’. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 11:12, 343-348. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(80)90279-9.
Abstract
In the course of investigations, a type of chemical additive was found which was effective in the prevention of crude oil emulsion formation. The additive also decreased water content normally found as a by-product of removal and storage. The additive prevented vertical dispersion of oil in the water column when applied to both oil and emulsified oil.

Brochu, C.; Pelletier, É.; Caron, G.; Desnoyers, J.E. 1986. Dispersion of crude oil in seawater: the role of synthetic surfactants. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:4, 257-279. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80030-2.
Abstract
This paper stresses the importance of interfacial properties that are responsible for the effectiveness of synthetic surfactants. The structural stability of molecules are responsible for the efficiency of surfactants, and improved knowledge of this aspect of surfactant behavior will allow for creating better dispersant formulas.

Brockis, G.J. 1975. Industry emergency oil spill plans and programmes. Environmental Protection, 2:51-55. ISSN:1057-4298.
Abstract
The oil industry, through the United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA), has established stocks of materials and equipment which are available to member companies for dealing, on an emergency basis, with oil spills which may occur due to exploration and production activity off the northern and eastern seaboard of the UK. The present capability and some plans for expansion of the scheme, which is based on dispersant application, are discussed. The equipment available from the UKOOA can be augmented by that available in other countries in north west Europe, through the north Sea Operators Clean Seas Committee on which 7 national operations' organizations, including UKOOA, are represented.
© CSA, 1975.

Brodie, D. 1987. Oil pollution response arrangements in Australia: the government view (including an update on dispersant testing). In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 181-188.

Bronchart, R.D.E.; Cadron, J.; Charlier, A.; Gillot, A.A.R.; Verstraete, W. 1985. A new approach in enhanced biodegradation of spilled oil: development of an oil dispersant containing oleophilic nutrients. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 453-462.
Abstract
A research program has been set up to develop oil dispersants containing oleophilic nutrients. This new type of dispersant will not only dilute the oil slick into the sea, but also start and speed up the microbial growth around the fine oil droplets, because the nutrients remain at the oil water interface and are not washed away in the water. Each of these newly synthesized nutrients is made of an oleophilic part (normal paraffine or olefine) and of a hydrophilic moiety (containing nitrogen and or phosphorus). This surfactant-like structure allows it to maintain a good level of dispersing efficiency. The capacity to stimulate biodegradation of the various compounds was evaluated by measuring the microbial CO2 production (mineralization) in a gas train arrangement of 40 channels monitored by a 40-way valve. This guaranteed a constant air supply to each test vial. A practical partition coefficient of the nutrient between oil and water was determined to evaluate its ability to remain at the interphase. The influence of the following parameters on the biodegradation process was studied: Amount and chain length of the oleophilic part and type of nutrient, used as such or incorporated in a dispersant; Replacement or no replacement of the water phase prior to degradation, to simulate the washing of nutrients into the sea; Dispersing efficiency of HLB of the formulated dispersant of a dispersant which exhibits a high dispersion efficiency and a quick-starting biodegradation of the dispersed crude oil.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Brown, C.W.; Lynch, P.F.; Ahmadjian, M. 1978. Chemical analysis of dispersed oil in the water column. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 188-202. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
Water and air samples collected from treated and untreated simulated oil spills have been analyzed for hydrocarbons. In test tanks, 6.2 m tall, the concentration of oil in the water just beneath the surface is initially 27 times greater when a dispersant is used. During a 3-day experiment, however, the amount of oil in the water column decreased significantly in both the treated and untreated cases. When a dispersant was used, the maximum concentration in the water column gradually moved toward the bottom of the tank. Results of laboratory, meso scale, and a real spill are compared.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Brown, D.H. 1972. The effect of Kuwait crude oil and a solvent emulsifier on the metabolism of the marine lichen Lichina pygmaea. Marine Biology, 12:4, 309-315. ISSN:0025-3162. DOI:10.1007/BF00366331.
Abstract
A marine lichen Lichina pygmaea (Lightf.) C. AG. was used to investigate the effects of crude oil and BP 1002 on metabolism. 14C fixation patterns and rates were determined during photosynthesis in the presence of NaH14CO3. Results suggested that BP 1002 exposure inhibited metabolism more than exposure to crude oil. BP 1002 concentrations and exposure times influenced amounts of reduced metabolism.

Brown, D.H. 1972. Toxicity studies on the components of an oil-spill emulsifier using Lichina pygmaea and Xanthoria parietina. Marine Biology, 18:4, 291-297. ISSN:0025-3162. DOI:10.1007/BF00347791.
Abstract
Two lichens, Lichina pygmaea and Xanthoria parietina, were exposed to components of BP 1002. Their responses, as measured by reduced total photosynthetic 14C-fixation, were compared with those of two alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Anabaena cylindrica. Components affected specific organisms in different ways, including altered permeability of cell membranes, removal of the extra-cellular pigment parietin, and loss of lipid- and water-soluble intercellular pigments.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1987. The Dispersion of Alaska North Slope Oil in Wave Basin Tests. Calgary, Alta.: Esso Resources Canada Ltd. 11 leaves.

Brown, H.M.; Weiss, D.K.; Goodman, R.H. 1990. Emulsion formation in dispersant-treated crude oil. In Proceedings: Thirteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 6-8, 1990, Chateau Lacombe, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 255-264. ISBN:0662575350.
Abstract
Trials were carried out in a wave basin to determine the effectiveness of chemical emulsifying agents applied to spilled oil contained behind parallel floating booms, each 10 m in diameter, on the surface of the basin. Samples of the oil (either North Slope or Drift River crudes) were taken at intervals up to 80 h from the initial application of dispersant. Viscosity and water content of the oil samples were determined and the water content expressed as a function of time by a series of linear regression equations, depending on the source of the original oil, the presence or absence of waves and the nature of the dispersants (Corexit 9550 or 9527). For the non-dispersed portions of slicks of Drift River crude, the application of dispersants enhanced the rate of water incorporation and also increased the viscosity, while the opposite effect was observed for North Slope crude oil.
© CSA, 1990.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1996. The use of dispersants in broken ice. In Proceedings, Nineteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1996, Sandman Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 453-460.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1989. Dispersants in the freshwater environment. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 31-40. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
During the past four years, a research program to investigate the effect of oil and dispersant chemicals on a freshwater ecosystem has been carried out. Laboratory experiments were used to select a suitable dispersant for a field trial and to develop monitoring techniques which would be capable of detecting chronic and sublethal effects in selected species of the freshwater ecosystem. The field trial demonstrated that a spill of light oil covering 5 to 10% of the surface of a shallow freshwater lake had no long-term measurable effects and that the application of a dispersant ameliorated some short-term effects even in this low-energy system.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Brown, H.M.; Weiss, D.K.; Goodman, R.H. 1989. The Formation of Emulsions in Dispersant Treated Crude Oils: A Report. Calgary, Alta.: Esso Resources Canada, Ltd. (no page information available).

Brown, H.M.; To, N.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1986. Experimental and theoretical basin studies of dispersant effectiveness in cold water. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 635-651. ISBN:0662148126.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H.; Canevari, G.P. 1987. Where has all the oil gone? Dispersed oil detection in a wave basin and at sea. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 307-312.
Abstract
During the past 10 years, there have been many sea trials of dispersant chemicals for the purpose of demonstrating the effectiveness of specific products or elucidating the processes of oil dispersion into the water column. Unfortunately, most of these tests have proved inconclusive, leading many to believe that dispersant chemicals are only marginally effective. Wave basin tests have been carried out at the Esso Resources Canada Limited laboratory in Calgary, Canada, to measure dispersant effectiveness under closely controlled conditions. These tests show that dispersed oil plumes may be irregular and concentrated over small volumes, so that extensive plume sampling was required to obtain accurate dispersant effectiveness measurements. In large-scale sea trials, dispersants have been shown effective, but only where sufficient sampling of the water column was done to detect small concentrated dispersed oil plumes and where it was known that the dispersant was applied primarily to the thick floating oil.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H.; Canevari, G.P. 1985. Dispersant effectiveness in cold water. In Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: Seminar Sponsored by the Environmental Protection Service, Environment Canada, June 18-20, 1985, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technical Services Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 245-259.

Brown, H.M.; To, N.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1987. The use of tests in a wave basin to define dispersant effectiveness. In Kuiper, J.; Van den Brink, W. J. (eds.). Fate and Effects of Oil in Marine Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Conference on Oil Pollution. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 211-213. ISBN:9024734894.
Abstract
An account is given of tests conducted in a large wave basin in order to assess the discrepancy between laboratory tests and sea spill observations regarding the effectiveness of oil dispersants. Following definition of dispersant effectiveness, a method is proposed for measuring the effectiveness in experimental spills at sea, which involves the measurement of oil concentration from beneath the oil slick.
© CSA, 1987.

Brown, H.M.; Goodman, R.H. 1988. Dispersant tests in a wave basin: four years of experience. In Proceedings: Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988, Sheraton Landmark Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 501-514. ISBN:0662559282.

Brown, H.M. et al. 1990. Dispersion of spilled oil in freshwater systems: field trial of a chemical dispersant. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 6:1, 37-54. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(05)80038-3.
Abstract
The impacts of oil and dispersed oil on freshwater ecosystems were examined in a field experiment conducted as part of the Freshwater Oil Spill Research Program. In July 1985, 3 m3 of Normal Wells crude oil were spilled on each of two fen lakes. The slick on one lake was treated with the dispersant Corexit 9550. Corexit 9550 was effective in removing the oil from the water surface even though wave energy was very low. The oil or dispersed oil had little detectable short or long term impact on all water quality parameters measured, or on the microbial populations and activities in the water column and sediments of both lakes. Untreated oil caused more damage than the dispersed oil to floating aquatic plants and the shoreline vegetation, but new growth within the affected areas was observed one month after treatment. Seasonal regrowth of vegetation in all areas affected by the treatments appeared normal. Our results suggest that the best response to oil contamination in isolated fen lakes is no action at all. However, floating oil or oil washed ashore could pose a significant threat to indigenous wildlife or its habitats. Under these conditions, chemical dispersion may prove to be an effective alternative when conventional control and recovery measures are not feasible.
Reprinted from Oil and Chemical Pollution, Volume 6, H.M. Brown, J.S. Goudey, J.M. Foght, S.K. Cheng, M. Dale, J. Hoddinott, L.R. Quaife, D,W,S. Westlake, Copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.

Brown, M. 1994. Slick work that can avoid disaster. Horizon: The Magazine of BP Exploration Worldwide, 12:19-21.

Brude, O.W.; Moe, K.A.; Skeie, G.M.; Østby, C.; Engen, F. 2004. An approach to Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) for the Norwegian continental shelf. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2004 Conference, Trondheim, Norway (CD-ROM). Horten, Norway: Norwegian Oil Spill Control Association (NOSCA). Horten, Norway: Norwegian Oil Spill Control Association (NOSCA). 10p.

Bruheim, P; Bredholt, H.; Eimhjellen, K. 1999. Effects of surfactant mixtures, including Corexit 9527, on bacterial oxidation of acetate and alkanes in crude oil. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 65:4, 1658-1661. ISSN:1098-5336.
Abstract
Corexit 9527 and its constituent parts (including Span 80, dioctyl sulfosuccinate (AOT)) were used in treatments to determine what effects they had on the oxidation of acetate and alkanes in crude oil by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ATCC 31012. Alkane oxidation was inhibited by the presence of Corexit 9527. Span 80 was found to increase oil oxidation rates while AOT strongly reduced oxidation rates. A combination of Span 80 and AOT was found to increase oxidation rates, though not as much as Span 80 alone. Acetate uptake and oxidation by A. calcoaceticus was affected in separate ways: nonionic surfactants interacted with acetate uptake while the anionic surfactant interacted with the oxidation process.

Bruheim, P.; Bredholt, H.; Eimhjellen, K. 1997. Bacterial degradation of emulsified crude oil and the effect of various surfactants. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 43:1, 17-22. ISSN:0008-4166.
Abstract
A Rhodococcus sp. 094 bacterium was tested for its ability to oxidize alkanes in crude oil emulsified by nonionic chemical and biological surfactants. Oxidation rates were measured in a 3-h period by Warburg respirometry. 14CO2 recovery was measured from the [1-14C]hexadecane spiked crude oil. Response to emulsified oil depended on the physiological state of the bacteria (i.e., cells harvested in the exponential and stationary growth phases) were tested. Oxidation rates by cells in the exponential growth phase were negatively affected by surfactant amendment. Oxidation rates by cells in the stationary growth phase were in some cases stimulated by surfactants. The stimulatory effect depended on both the chemical structure and the physicochemical properties (i.e., hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB)) of the surfactants. Surfactants with intermediate HLB values (8–12) gave the best results. Neither the biosurfactants nor the commercial oil-spill dispersants tested had any significant stimulatory effect.
Copyright 1997, National Research Council Canada. Reprinted with permission from NRC Research Press.

Bruheim, P.; Eimhjelle, K. 2000. Effects of non-ionic surfactants on the uptake and hydrolysis of fluoresceindiacetate by alkane-oxidizing bacteria. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 46:4, 387-390. ISSN:0008-4166.
Abstract
Biological effects of non-ionic surfactants on alkane-oxidizing bacteria were studied by assessing their influence on the uptake of prefluorochrome fluoresceindiacetate (FDA) and its intracellular hydrolysis to fluorescein. Both decreasing and increasing rates of hydrolysis as a consequence of the presence of surfactants were observed. The surfactants influenced the uptake of FDA, but not its intracellular hydrolysis. The effects of the surfactants on the uptake rate depended strongly on the structure and physico-chemical properties of the surfactants. There was no qualitative or significant quantitative difference in surfactant susceptibility between induced (alkane grown) and non-induced bacteria (acetate grown), even though the induced cells possess greater cell surface hydrophobicity.
Copyright 2000, National Research Council Canada. Reprinted with permission from NRC Research Press.

Bryan, G.W. 1969. The effects of oil-spill removers (‘detergents’) on gastropod Nucella lapillus on a rocky shore and in the laboratory. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 49:4, 1067-1092. ISSN:0025-3154.
Abstract
The effects of oil-spill removers ('detergents') on a population of Nucella lapillus was studied at Porthleven in South Cornwall, where heavy oil pollution occurred following the Torrey Canyon incident in March 1967. Nucella is one of the shore animals which are most resistant to ‘detergent’ treatment, but at Porthleven the species was wiped out in the harbour and the majority of animals were killed on the reef nearby. Growing animals which recovered from the effects of the 'detergent' (BP 1002) were later found to have developed growth disturbances in the shell. These effects on growth were studied in the field and in the laboratory and appear to be an indirect effect of 'detergent' resulting from its interference with the ability of the animal to feed and with the availability of food. Recolonization of the reef was more rapid than expected and depended largely on the survival of some very young animals in the sublittoral zone. Probably because most of the potential predators had been wiped out by the 'detergent’, these animals were able to invade the reef in large numbers late in 1967. In fact, 2 years after the ‘detergent’ treatment, there was some evidence that the reef may have become overpopulated with Nucella. In contrast, recolonization of the outer harbour, where the species was wiped out, was slow during the first 2 years and dependent on lateral movements of animals from the reef. It is concluded that if the ‘detergent’ treatment of the reef had been slightly heavier then the species would have been wiped out there as well and would have been slow to recover.
© Cambridge University Press, 1969.

Buckley, J.; Green, D.; Humphrey, B. 1981. Oil spill cleanup with dispersants: a boomed oil spill experiment. In Proceedings: 1981 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, Georgia. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 263-268.
Abstract
Three experimental oil spills of 200, 400, and 200 litres (l) were conducted in October, 1978, in a semiprotected coastal area on Canada's west coast. The surface slicks were restrained with a Bennett inshore oil boom. The spilled oil was chemically dispersed using Corexit 9527, applied as a 10-percent solution in sea water and sprayed from a boat. The dispersed oil was monitored fluorometrically for some hours. Surface and dispersed oil were sampled for chemical analysis. The highest recorded concentration of dispersed oil was 1 part per million (ppm). After a short time (30 minutes), concentrations around 0.05 ppm were normal, decreasing to background within 5 hours. The concentrations were low compared to those expected for complete dispersion which, as visual observation confirmed, was not achieved. The dispersed oil did not mix deeper into the water column with the passage of time, in contrast to predicted behaviour and in spite of the lack of a significant vertical density gradient in the sea water. This was attributed to the buoyancy of the dispersed oil droplets and the limited vertical turbulence in the coastal locale of the experiment. The integrated quantity of oil in the water column decreased more rapidly than either the mean oil concentration of the cloud or the maximum concentration indicating that some of the dispersed oil was rising back to the surface. The surfacing of dispersed oil was confirmed visually during the experiment. The mixing action of the spray boat and breaker boards apparently created large oil droplets that did not form a stable dispersion. Horizontal diffusion of the dispersed oil was initially more rapid than expected, but the rate of spreading did not increase with time as predicted. The results imply that the scale of diffusion was larger than the scale of turbulence which again can be attributed to the locale of the experiment.
© 1981 with permission from API.

Buckley, J.; Humphrey, B. 1979. Fate of dispersed oil in the environment. Part II. A boomed oil spill. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: March 7, 8, 9, 1979, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Fisheries and Environment Canada, Environmental Emergency Branch. pp. 10-18.

Bugden, J.B.C.; Yeung, C.W.; Kepkay, P.E.; Lee, K. 2008. Application of ultraviolet fluorometry and excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS) to fingerprint oil and chemically dispersed oil in seawater. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2008: 56:4, 677-685. ISSN:0025-326X . DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.12.022.
Abstract
Excitation–emission matrix spectroscopy (EEMS) was used to characterize the ultra violet fluorescence fingerprints of eight crude oils (with a 14,470-fold range of dynamic viscosity) in seawater. When the chemical dispersant Corexit 9500® was mixed with the oils prior to their dispersion in seawater, the fingerprints of each oil changed primarily as an increase in fluorescence over an emission band centered on 445 nm. In order to simplify the wealth of information available in the excitation–emission matrix spectra (EEMs), two ratios were calculated. A 66–90% decrease in the slope ratio was observed with the addition of Corexit. When the slope ratios were reduced in complexity to intensity ratios, similar trends were apparent. As a result either of the ratios could be used as a simple and rapid means of identifying and monitoring chemically dispersed oil in the open ocean.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 56, J.B.C. Bugden, C.W. Yeung, P.E. Kepkay, K. Lee, Copyright 2008, with permission from Elsevier.

Buist, I. 2002. Extending temporary storage capacity with emulsion breakers. In Twenty-Fifth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Nineteenth Technical Seminar on Chemical Spills (TSOCS) and Fourth Biotechnology Solutions for Spills (BIOSS): June 11 to 13, 2002, Westin Calgary Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Proceedings. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 139-167. URL

Buist, I.; Lewis, A.; Guarino, A.; Mullin, J. 2005. Examining the fate of emulsion breakers used for decanting. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 171-175. URL

Buist, I.; Morrison, J. 2005. Research on using oil herding surfactants to thicken oil slicks in pack ice for in situ burning. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 7-9, 2005, Calgary (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 349-375. URL

Buist, I. et al. 2003. Decanting tests at OHMSETT with and without emulsion breakers. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 827-832. URL
Abstract
This paper summarizes a multi-year research program to address the decanting of water from oil spill fluids recovered by skimmers. The first series of tests, with two weir-type skimmers at Ohmsett, was conducted to study the rate and amount of free water separation that can be expected in temporary storage containers. The goal of this study was to predict the best time to decant water back into the boomed area and optimize the available onsite storage space. The results indicated that “primary break” (the initial separation of the recovered liquids) occurred within a few minutes to one hour, depending on the physical characteristics of the oil. Rapidly decanting this free water layer may offer immediate increases of 200 to 300% in available temporary storage volume. Initial oil concentrations in the decanted water also depended on the physical properties of the oil; they ranged from 100 to 3000 mg/L. These declined by a factor of approximately 3 after one hour after settling, and by a factor of approximately 5 after one day. The second series of tests was undertaken to develop a more complete understanding of the use of emulsion breakers injected into an oil spill recovery system at both lab-scale (at SL Ross) and mid-scale (at Ohmsett). The experiments were designed to assess the injection/mixing/settling regimes required for optimum water-removal from a meso-stable water-in-oil emulsion with an oil spill demulsifier. The use of a demulsifier injected into a recovery system, combined with decanting, did substantially reduce the volume of water in temporary storage tanks and the water content of emulsions for disposal/recycling.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Buist, I.A.; Ross, S.L. 1986. A study of chemicals to inhibit emulsification and promote dispersion of oil spills. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:6, 485-503. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80028-4.
Abstract
This report describes the advent of emulsion inhibitors, and the types of testing employed to quantify their effectiveness in spill response scenarios. Chemicals normally sold as demulsifiers were an integral part of the new class of treating agents. One of the products, produced in Europe, could prevent emulsification when present in oil at ratios of 1:20,000 at 20°C and 1:1000 at higher than 10°C. However, lower temperatures negatively impacted emulsification of oil.

Buist, I.A.; Ross, S.L. 1986. The use of emulsion inhibitors to control offshore oil spills: part 2. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 271-299. ISBN:0662148126.

Buist, I.A.; Ross, S.L. 1987. Emulsion inhibitors: a new concept in oil spill treatment. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 217-222.
Abstract
As a result of a two year program involving bench-scale, small-scale, and meso-scale testing, a new class of oil spill treating agents has been identified. These agents, called emulsion inhibitors, are highly oleophilic surfactants, which, when applied onto oil spills in very low concentrations, not only prevent mousse formation for significant periods of time but also cause a large reduction in oil-water inter- facial tension. Both of these promote the dispersion of the oil into the water column. The best chemicals to effect these results were found to be surfactants normally sold as oil spill “demulsifiers” (that is, surfactants that “break” oil spill mousse once collected). The best of these, a European-manufactured product was to found to prevent emulsification at dosages as low as one part inhibitor to 20,000 parts of fresh oil at 20° C. At dosages on the order of 1:1000, at temperatures higher than 10° C, the chemical also results in significant and rapid dispersion of the oil. For very low temperatures of highly weathered oil the performance of the chemical falls off sharply.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Burns, K.A.; Codi, S.; Pratt, C.; Duke, N.C. 1999. Weathering of hydrocarbons in mangrove sediments: testing the effects of using dispersants to treat oil spills. Organic Geochemistry, 30:10, 1273-1286. ISSN:0146-6380. DOI:10.1016/S0146-6380(99)00101-1.
Abstract
This field study was a combined chemical and biological investigation of the relative effects of using dispersants to treat oil spills impacting mangrove habitats. The aim of the chemistry was to determine whether dispersant affected the short- or long-term composition of a medium range crude oil (Gippsland) stranded in a tropical mangrove environment in Queensland, Australia. Sediment cores from three replicate plots of each treatment (oil only and oil plus dispersant) were analyzed for total hydrocarbons and for individual molecular markers (alkanes, aromatics, triterpanes, and steranes). Sediments were collected at 2 days, then 1, 7, 13 and 22 months post-spill. Over this time, oil in the six treated plots decreased exponentially from 36.6±16.5 to 1.2±0.8 mg/g dry wt. There was no statistical difference in initial oil concentrations, penetration of oil to depth, or in the rates of oil dissipation between oiled or dispersed oil plots. At 13 months, alkanes were >50% degraded, aromatics were ~30% degraded based upon ratios of labile to resistant markers. However, there was no change in the triterpane or sterane biomarker signatures of the retained oil. This is of general forensic interest for pollution events. The predominant removal processes were evaporation (≤27%) and dissolution (≥56%), with a lag-phase of 1 month before the start of significant microbial degradation (≤17%). The most resistant fraction of the oil that remained after 7 months (the higher molecular weight hydrocarbons) correlated with the initial total organic carbon content of the soil. Removal rate in the Queensland mangroves was significantly faster than that observed in the Caribbean and was related to tidal flushing.
Reprinted from Organic Geochemistry, Volume 30, K.A. Burns, S. Codi, C. Pratt, N.C. Duke, Copyright 1999, with permission from Elsevier.

Burridge, T.R.; Shir, M.A. 1995. The comparative effects of oil dispersants and oil/dispersant conjugates on germination of the marine macroalga Phyllospora comosa (Fucales: Phaeophyta). Marine Pollution Bulletin, 31:4-12, 446-452. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(95)00177-O.
Abstract
Germination inhibition of the marine macrophyte Phyllospora comosa was utilized as a sub-lethal end-point to assess and compare the effects of four oil dispersants and dispersed diesel fuel and crude oil combinations. Inhibition of germination by the water-soluble fraction of diesel fuel increased following the addition of each of the dispersants; the nominal 48-h EC50 concentration of diesel fuel declined from 6800 to approximately 400 μl l-1 nominal for each dispersed combination. This contrasted with crude oil, where the addition of two dispersants resulted in an enhanced germination rate and an increase in nominal EC50 concentrations from 130 μl l-1 for the undispersed crude to 4000 and 2500 μl l-1. The results indicate that, while germination inhibition of P. comosa may be enhanced by the chemical dispersal of oil, the response varies with type of both oil and oil dispersant.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 31, T.R. Burridge, M.A. Shir, Copyright 1995, with permission from Elsevier.

Butler, J.N. 1989. Using oil spill dispersants on the sea. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 343-346.
Abstract
Primary consideration in this critical review was given to treating oil spills at sea with the intent of reducing the environmental impact of that oil if it should reach the shore. The general conclusions reached were: 1) In carefully planned and monitored laboratory and sea tests, oil has been effectively dispersed; but at many field tests and at accidental spills, reported effectiveness has been low--perhaps because of poor targeting and distribution of aerial sprays, because the oils were too viscous to be dispersable, or the observations of effectiveness were inconclusive; 2) The acute lethal toxicities of dispersant formulations currently in use are usually lower than those of the more volatile and soluble fractions of crude oils and their refined products; hence the toxicity of dispersed oil is due primarily to the oil and not to the dispersant; 3) Sublethal effects of dispersed oil observed in the laboratory occur in most cases at concentrations comparable to or higher than those expected in the water column during treatment of an oil slick at sea (1 to 10 ppm) but seldom at concentrations less than are found several hours after treatment (less than 1 ppm). Since the times of exposure in the laboratory are much longer than predicted exposures during slick dispersal at sea (one to three hours), the effects would be correspondingly less; 4) In open waters, organisms on the surface will be less affected by dispersed oil than by an oil slick, but organisms in the upper water column will experience greater exposure to oil components if the oil is dispersed. In shallow habitats with poor water circulation, benthic organisms will be more immediately affected by dispersed than untreated oil. Long-term effects of dispersed oil on some habitats, such as mangroves, are less, and the habitat recovers faster if the oil is dispersed before it reaches that area; 5) Because the principal benefit of dispersant use is to prevent oil stranding on sensitive shorelines, and because dispersability of oil decreases rapidly with weathering, prompt response is essential.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Butler, M.J.A.; Berkes, F.; Powles, H. 1974. Biological Aspects of Oil Pollution in the Marine Environment: A Review. Montreal: Marine Sciences Centre, McGill University. 133p.
Abstract
This review was prepared as a background document from the Marine Sciences Centre for the oil pollution study undertaken by McGill University on behalf of the Canadian Department of the Environment. The aim of this study is to analyze the environmental implications of a series of hypothetical incidents that would be associated with activities involving oil exploration, exploitation, export and import, coastal movement and marine transportation activities and facilities. The present volume is an updated version of the original report prepared by Butler and Berkes as a background paper for the McGill University study on oil for Environment Canada.
© CSA, 1974.

Butler, R.G.; Trivelpiece, W.; Miller, D.S. 1982. The effect of oil, dispersant, and emulsions on the survival and behavior of an estuarine teleost and an intertidal amphipod. Environmental Research, 27:2, 266-276. ISSN:0013-9351. DOI:10.1016/0013-9351(82)90082-2.
Abstract
Killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) and amphipods (Gammarus oceanicus) were exposed separately to either a No. 2 fuel oil, AP dispersant, or emulsions of the two in a static system. Both species exhibited a concentration-dependent response to all three treatments. However, emulsification of oil with dispersant clearly increased its lethal effect on killifish survival, but did not cause a differential change in behavioral parameters such as schooling, chafing, substrate nipping, activity, or depth preference. Killifish exposed to conditions of thermal or osmotic stress were more sensitive to the lethal effects of emulsions. In contrast, emulsions caused quantitative changes in amphipod activity and precopulatory behavior, but did not increase mortality beyond that caused by exposure to oil alone. Changes in salinity had little effect on amphipod sensitivity to emulsions, but decreasing temperature did result in increased survival.
Reprinted from Environmental Research, Volume 27, R.G. Butler, W. Trivelpiece, D.S. Miller, Copyright 1982, with permission from Elsevier.

Butler, R.G.; Harfenist, A.; Leighton, F.A.; Peakall, D.B. 1988. Impact of sublethal oil and emulsion exposure on the reproductive success of Leach's storm-petrels: short and long-term effects. Journal of Applied Ecology, 25:1, 125-143. ISSN:0021-8901.
Abstract
A 3-year field study investigated reproductive success of Oceanodroma leucorhoa Vieillot exposed to oil and an oil/dispersant emulsion. Results indicate that initial breeding success was impacted by internal or external exposure to oil/dispersant mixtures in sublethal concentrations. Adults were more sensitive to pollutants during late incubation and early post-hatching periods. Nesting and hatching rates generally returned to normal in the second year after exposure.

Butler, R.G. et al. 1979. Further studies on the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on marine birds. Bulletin - Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 19:33-35. ISSN:0097-0883.
Abstract
The effects of crude oils, Corexit (0.1 mL), and 10:1 mixtures of crude/Corexit were studied using young Larus argentatus and adult plus young Oceanodroma leucorhoa to discover which components of oil were responsible for the effects observed and whether the toxicity could be modified by emulsification of the oil. Chicks of both species exposed to Corexit exhibited no significant changes in growth rate or organ weights compared to controls. Exposure to crude/Corexit mixtures resulted in similar effects in growth and organ weight found in birds dosed by oil alone.

Byford, D.C.; Green, P.J.; Lewis, A. 1983. Factors influencing the performance and selection of low-temperature dispersants. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar; June 14-16, 1983, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technical Services Branch Environmental Protection Service. pp. 140-150.

Byford, D.C.; Green, P.J. 1984. A view of the Mackay and Labofina laboratory tests for assessing dispersant effectiveness with regard to performance at sea. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 69-86. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
A comparison has been made of the Mackay and Labofina tests for evaluating oil spill dispersants, in terms of showing correlation with effectiveness at sea. Both tests have been found to provide repeatable data on the efficiency of dispersants. Good agreement was obtained between the two tests for the efficiency ratings of five commercially available dispersants as well as for the identification of optimum surfactant combinations. When differences occurred between the two methods in the selection of optimum formulations, the cause was found to be the onset of wave damping affecting the Mackay test results. The major advantages of each test were speed and simplicity in the case of the Labofina test and the simulations of wind shear and wave-mixing action on dispersant-treated oil at sea for the Mackay test. While both methods showed significant disadvantages, both were considered useful in predicting dispersant performance at sea.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Byford, D.C.; Laskey, P.R.; Lewis, A. 1984. Effect of low temperature and varying energy input on the droplet size distribution of oils treated with dispersants. In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 208-228.

Byford, D.C. 1982. The development of dispersants for application at low temperatures. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar: Seminar Held June 15-17, 1982, Edmonton, Alberta . Ottawa, Ont: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 239-254.

Byroade, J.D.; Twedell, A.M.; LeBoff, J.P. 1981. Handbook for Oil Spill Protection and Cleanup Priorities. Cincinnati, Oh.: Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 134p.

Cabridenc, R.; Lepailleur, H.; Bazzon, M.; Bocard, C. 1984. A flow-through system for testing oil dispersant toxicity. In Persoone, G.; Jaspers, E.; Claus, C. (eds.). Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment, Ghent, Belgium, September 12-14, 1983. Bredene, Belgium: Institute for Marine Scientific Research. Volume 2. pp. 295-296. ISBN:9090008136.

Calhoun, J.W.; Glenn, S.P.; Henderson, L.M.; Duncan, W.T.; Johnson, C. 1997. Development of a dispersant doctrine in the Gulf of Mexico. In Proceedings: 1997 International Oil Spill Conference: Improving Environmental Protection: Progress, Challenges, Responsibilities: April 7-10, 1997, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 637-642. URL
Abstract
To minimize the environmental damage caused by catastrophic oil spills, the response community must work together to keep spilled oil from impacting sensitive areas and natural resources. Since no response method is 100% effective, it, is essential to consider the use of all available cleanup methods simultaneously. Preapproval for the use of dispersants by on-scene coordinators (OSCs) is necessary to maximize the benefits of dispersant application in a major coastal oil spill, and such preapproval is the responsibility of federal and state agencies. Over the past several years, the petrochemical industry, the response community, and the Region VI Regional Response Team (RRT VI), have studied the efficacy of various cleanup technologies. On the basis of their findings, in January 1995 RRT VI gave OSCs authority to use dispersants off the coasts of Texas and Louisiana under specific conditions. This was a significant shift from past philosophies, under which OSCs relied almost exclusively on mechanical recovery methods. Concurrently, industry has developed reliable and dedicated resources for the aerial application of dispersants in the Gulf of Mexico and has strategically located stockpiles of dispersants throughout the Gulf region. Delivery aircraft and trained controllers have been retained by industry to maintain a readiness and response posture that will maximize the effectiveness of an aerial application.
© 1997 with permission from API.

California. Water Pollution Control Laboratory. 1971. Evaluating Oil Spill Cleanup Agents; Development of Testing Procedures and Criteria. Sacramento, Ca.: California State Water Resources Control Board. 150p.
Abstract
Authors provided technical data as criteria for the licensing and regulating of oil spill cleanup agents. Criteria included toxicity, performance effectiveness, and physical/chemical descriptions. Technical data was derived from a number of tests. Bioassays using fresh and saltwater established 96 h median tolerance limit (TLm) values for oil, dispersants, and oil/dispersant mixtures. Static, 24 h renewal and continuous flow bioassays were carried out. Researchers also conducted biodegradation tests, including monitoring biochemical oxygen demand and toxicity decay. Performance effectiveness was established by modification of the Federal Water Quality Association and U.S. Navy performance tests. The criteria for performance effectiveness included miscibility with seawater, emulsification percentage, amount of oil sinking, and amount of oil dispersed after two and six h. GLC, IR, a colorimetric method, Oil Red O method, and the weatherburn tests were used to identify pure dispersants and dispersants in seawater. From these tests, dispersants were observed to have the greatest potential for harm to the environment, while collecting and sinking agents were found to be relatively inert, insoluble, and probably nontoxic.

Canada. Environmental Protection Service. 1984. Guidelines on the Use and Acceptability of Oil Spill Dispersants. 2nd edition. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service. 31p. ISBN:0662132009.

Canada. Ministry of Transport. 1970. Report of the Task Force--Operation Oil (Clean-Up of the Arrow Oil Spill in Chedabucto Bay) to the Minister of Transport. Ottawa, Ont.: Information Canada. 3 Vols.

Canadian Offshore Aerial Applications Task Force. 1986. The Effectiveness of Three Aerially Applied Dispersants in an Offshore Field Trial. Calgary, Alta.: Pallister Resource Management Ltd. 145p.

Canadian Offshore Oil Spill Research Association. 1982. A Model of the Impact of Chemically-Treated and Untreated Oil Spills on Seabird and Fish Populations. Calgary, Alta.: Canadian Offshore Oil Spill Research Association. (no page information available).

Canelas, L.D.; Calejo Monteiro, J.D. 1977. Some studies of an oil spillage due to the Jacob Maersk accident. In Proceedings of the 1977 Oil Spill Conference, March 8-10, New Orleans, Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 281-288.
Abstract
The introduction of oil into the hydrosphere subjects it to several transformation processes, as a consequence of the different environmental conditions which may alter its composition. These modifications include evaporation, solution and dispersion, oxidation (other chemical alterations), microbial decomposition, absorption by biota and sedimentation. The Jacob Maersk accident taking place at Leixōes harbor on January 29, 1975, seemed not to have catastrophic consequences when compared to similar accidents. However, only after a long time will it be possible to estimate the influence of the different fractions of oil, as well as the dispersants and detergents used on biotic communities. Studies still are being conducted in that area on the behaviour of populations due to the impact and of the ecological recuperation of the community structure. It should be emphasized that the use of dispersants began on January 31. 160 barrels were used on February 2. Trawler ships applied the dispersant at a rate of four barrels/hour, using pressure hoses as well as one spray system. The dispersant application--about 2,000 barrels or 200 liters each were used by mid-March--was by “FINA” technicians. Two dispersion processes were used: emulsification at 4% with water and subsequent distribution with fire monitors, and distribution of product by sprinklers and subsequent mixing with high pressure nozzles. It was the aim of the present work to obtain some experience in order to collect the most information from such situations. This represents a preliminary survey carried out during several months on the accident site, and to be continued later by the responsible entities.
© 1977 with permission from API.

Canevari G.P. 1985. The effect of crude oil composition on dispersant performance. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 441-444.
Abstract
Previously, anomalous results from various laboratory dispersant effectiveness tests were believed due to the historic difficulties of replicating field conditions in the laboratory. Some variables were reported to cause differences in dispersant performance, such as the oil viscosity-i.e., both dispersant A and dispersant B exhibited poorer performance as the oil viscosity increase. Other test results showed an opposite trend. For example, dispersant A performed more effectively than dispersant B for Murban crude oil but B was better than A for the more viscous La Rosa crude oil. It is now believed that these inconsistent results are actually due to the chemical compositions of the crude oils. Various factors influence dispersant performance and some initial research directed at determining the mechanism of water-in-oil emulsion (mousse) formation has identified naturally occurring surfactants in the various crude oils. This will provide insight as to how these indigenous agents interacted with the surfactant package in the test dispersant to affect overall performance. Variations in dispersant performance for different crude oils are thus likely to be related to the water-in-oil emulsion formation of the particular crude oil. The results of this work indicate that dispersant treatment should be evaluated during spill situations even if the crude oil physical properties, such as high viscosity, might suggest that dispersant treatment would not be effective.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1987. Basic study reveals how different crude oils influence dispersant performance. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 293-296.
Abstract
Previous research has shown that crude oils contain various amounts of indigenous surface active agents that stabilize water-in-oil emulsions. It is also known that crude oils stabilize such emulsions to different extents. One aspect of the study was to investigate the relationship between the emulsion forming tendency of the various crude oils and the level of performance of a chemical dispersant on the particular crude oil. The results of the extensive laboratory test program indicated that dispersant effectiveness is a function of both dispersant type and the specific crude oil. However, there is no apparent correlation between the degree of emulsion-forming tendency of the crude oil, which is a function of the indigenous surfactant content, and effectiveness. A "clean" hydrocarbon, tetradecane (C14) was also tested in order to evaluate the absence of any indigenous surfactants on performance. It was found that tetradecane exhibited a higher level of effectiveness compared to the crude oils for each of the dispersants tested. In essence, the indigenous surfactants in the crude oil, in every instance, reduce dispersant effectiveness but to an unpredictable level. This is probably due to the fact that these agents present in crude oil promote a water-in-oil emulsion. Since the chemical dispersant is formulated to produce an oil-in-water dispersion, the interference of these crude oil surfactants is apparent. Hence, tetradecane would be an ideal test oil since the degree of dispersion of tetradecane by a particular dispersant represents the maximum dispersion effectiveness for that product. In order to establish more definitively the role of the indigenous surfactants, this surfactant phase was successfully separated from nine crude oils representative of different emulsion forming tendencies. It was found that the amount of surfactant residue extracted from the crude oil did correlate with the emulsion forming tendency of the crude oil. Finally, the above separated surfactant residue was added to tetradecane at the same concentrations as in the respective crude oil. As expected, in every instance, the surfactant residue decreased dispersant performance compared to "pure" tetradecane.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1984. A review of the relationship between the characteristics of spilled oil and dispersant effectiveness. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 87-93. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
The effectiveness of a particular chemical dispersant in usually determined by various laboratory tests. Such laboratory performance cannot always be replicated in the field. The physical and chemical aspects of the actually spilled oil influence dispersant performance in a manner that usually cannot be extrapolated from the laboratory tests. Some of the important parameters discussed in this paper are the geometry, viscosity, and lens effect of the slick and the type of crude oil. Very thin slicks are sometimes not truly dispersed but are collected into a multiplicity of surface lenses by the penetration of the relatively large dispersant droplet. Heavily weathered and very viscous oil can resist contact with the more fluid dispersant and dispersant “roll-off” can ensue. An oil slick wherein 90% of the oil can be located in 10% of the area could result in overtreating some areas and undertreating others. The composition of the crude oil and its emulsion-forming tendency influence dispersant effectiveness regardless of other physical properties such as viscosity. This influence is more extensively discussed because of the unique effect of the crude oil composition on dispersant effectiveness.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Canevari, G.P. 1969. General dispersant theory. In Proceedings of API/FWPCA Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. New York: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 171-177.
Abstract
Chemical dispersants have a role in the cleanup of oil spills. However, neither dispersion nor any other current technique is a panacea for this purpose. There are situations where dispersants can be used for the benefit of our natural resources; but there are also instances where they should not be used. Similarly, there are conditions under which they are effective, as well as limits where they become ineffective. These aspects of the subject, as well as the mechanism of and basis for dispersing oil slicks, will be discussed. An understanding of the mechanism of dispersency is of prime importance in order to appreciate the behavior and variation in effectiveness of various generic types of surface active agents in promoting oil-in-water dispersions. In this regard, the presence of naturally occurring surfactants in crude oil and their properties are discussed. Even for the same chemical agent, its efficiency can vary due to the influence of many factors such as method application, degree of mixing, type of oil, temperature of water, amount of circulation in the body water, etc. Some chemicals can be more sensitive to a specific factor than others. Therefore, an appreciation of mechanism and the effect of environmental and application factors is necessary in order to assess the appropriate scope of application for dispersants as a tool for the handling of oil spills.
© 1969 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1969. The role of chemical dispersants in oil spill cleanup. In Holt, D.P. (ed.). Oil on the Sea; Proceedings of a Symposium on the Scientific and Engineering Aspects of Oil Pollution of the Sea. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 29-51.

Canevari, G.P. 1971. Oil spill dispersants - current status and future outlook. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills: June 15-17, 1971. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 263-270.
Abstract
The use of chemical dispersants for the handling of oil spills has had a brief but highly turbulent history. Despite extensive laboratory data and field application experience, their role in oil spill cleanup is still controversial. This paper reviews some of this past history as background in order to derive the pros and cons regarding their use. Opinions vary from an extreme of no use whatsoever to an acceptance of as the only practical technique to combat an oil spill under rough sea conditions. Improvements in the formulation of dispersants during the past several years are reviewed. These innovations involve modifications to improve effectiveness, application techniques and toxicological properties. A brief outline of the mechanisms of dispersing is presented to permit a better understanding of these formulation modifications and the manner in which said changes influence dispersant properties. The future outlook for dispersants, based on current and anticipated research in this field, is also discussed. This research involves biological as well as operational aspects of dispersants.
© 1971 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1973. Development of the 'next generation' chemical dispersants. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 231-240.
Abstract
In order to fully appreciate the development trend for the “next generation” chemical dispersants for oil spills, the current status of this field is briefly reviewed. Recent applications illustrate the specific beneficial potential role of chemical dispersants in the oil spill control, as well as their limitation. The present mechanism of dispersing oil spills by the application of chemical dispersants is well understood and is the subject of many technical papers. While there is some variation in the relative performance and toxicity of the many commercially available products, they all require mixing after application. In instances wherein the dispersant has been marginally effective, inadequate mixing was usually the reason. Thus, mixing is the limiting step rather than application. The mixing of an oil spill by boat propellers, fire hoses, etc., is laborious and time consuming. However, dispersant may be readily applied to large areas by aerial application similar to “crop dusting.” In some instances, the oil spill may even become inaccessible for convenient mixing (e.g. under piers, shallow water). Hence, the elimination (or minimizing) of the mixing step would be a major improvement in the dispersion process. The “next generation” oil spill dispersants will require little or no mixing energy and will approach spontaneous emulsification. The mechanism of “self mixing” is outlined in this presentation. Performance data comparing this generic type of chemical dispersant with the more conventional systems commonly used illustrate the major differences. Another important aspect of this system is the resultant dispersed oil droplet size. The remaining concerns and other considerations requiring further study are discussed.
© 1973 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1975. A review of the utility of self-mixing dispersants in recent years. In 1975 Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution: Proceedings, March 25-27, 1975, San Francisco, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 337-342.
Abstract
This paper reviews the development during the past two years of self-mixing chemical dispersants to minimize damage from oil spills. Some history regarding the acceptance (or lack thereof) of previous conventional dispersants requiring mixing energy is covered so that the progress manifested by the current self-mix dispersant approach can readily be appreciated. The utility of the self-mix dispersant system is based upon both the elimination of the laborious mixing requirement and the formation of submicron diameter size oil droplets. The role of droplet size in the behavior and movement of dispersed oil as well as the effect of droplet size on the toxicological and ecological impact of the dispersed oil, are significant aspects that are discussed. The planned research to determine the fate of dispersed oil under actual field conditions is outlined. This will permit a more accurate and objective assessment of the impact of dispersed oil on the marine environment than is now available from the extrapolation of laboratory bioassays. For example, the rapid dilution-dispersion of the oil into a large body of water is an important characteristic and advantage of the chemical dispersion process and is very much influenced by droplet size. However, in laboratory tests the concentration of the oil is maintained at a constant level during the test exposure, and little attention is directed towards the determination or control of the dispersed oil droplet size.
© 1975 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1977. Chemical oil dispersing agents and their feasibility for use. In Proceedings of the 1977 Oil Spill Response Workshop. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Services Program. pp. 83-94.
Abstract
There is increased recognition that there is a role for chemical dispersants in minimizing damage from oil spills. The improved effectiveness afforded by the self-mix dispersant system has been demonstrated. In addition, several organizations are planning major field demonstrations of this type of dispersant system. In these experiments, the water column will be sampled in the environs of the dispersed oil in order to establish the rate of dilution of oil concentration. The resolution of this important aspect (i.e., the dilution and resultant toxicity of dispersed oil) will help place the various laboratory bioassays, wherein dilution of the dispersed oil concentration is not considered, in a more proper perspective. Conventional (mixing required) dispersants will continue to be used in the immediate future where mixing energy is conveniently available and the spill size is relatively small. Hardware (sprays, booms, mixing breaker boards, etc.) have been well-developed for boat applications. In this regard, some dispersants are now formulated as concentrates (High surface-active agent content) for greater oil-to-chemical treatment ratios, thereby permitting workboats to remain on station longer before having to replenish supplies.
© CSA, 1979.

Canevari, G.P. 1977. Some recent observations regarding the unique characteristics and effectiveness of self-mix chemical dispersants. In Proceedings: 1977 Oil Spill Conference: Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup: March 8-10, 1977, New Orleans, Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 387-390.
Abstract
There has been an increasing awareness of the utility of conventional chemical dispersants in general, and self-mix dispersants in particular as a stable means to minimize damage from oil spills. This paper will update the use of, and activity regarding the self-mix dispersant as noted in applications over the past two years. In addition, these aspects that are still little understood are discussed. Specifically, uniformly sized, dispersed oil droplets of approximately 1 micron diameter are formed by the diffusion action of self-mix chemical dispersants. The droplet size influences the dilution rate of the spilled oil in field applications, and data to support this are presented. The results of laboratory bioassays performed with these much smaller dispersed oil droplets, as opposed to larger droplets formed with mechanical mixing, can be misinterpreted since the increased rate of dilution afforded by smaller droplet size are not replicated. In addition to the vital dilution study results, this paper also presents evidence to clarify several popular misconceptions regarding chemical dispersants. For example, it is explained that the apparent synergistic effects between oil and dispersant do not indicate that chemical dispersants release toxic substances from the oil into the water. Data is also presented which shows that dispersants do not cause the oil to sink.
© 1977 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. 1970. Corexit 7664 Oil Dispersant - Status of Toxicity Evaluation. Esso Research and Engineering Company. 11p.

Canevari, G.P. 1978. Some observations on the mechanism and chemistry aspects of chemical dispersion. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 5-17. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
An overview of the mechanism of chemical dispersion is presented in order to put the subject in the proper perspective. The methodology and role of the surface active agent in the generation of finely dispersed oil droplets are reviewed. This discussion of the dispersing mechanism will help resolve some of the misconceptions that have persisted for the past 10 years, such as the dispersant acting to either sink or solubilize the oil droplets into the water column, or both. The incentives, concerns, and resultant present status of chemical dispersion are developed.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Canevari, G.P. 1979. The restoration of oiled shorelines by the proper use of chemical dispersants. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca., March, 1979. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 443-446.
Abstract
Currently, mechanical cleanup techniques are conventionallt utilized to restore oil contaminated shorelines, such as marshland, beaches, sea walls, etc. Such methods can cause severe environmental damage. The approach is also inefficient in that oil removed from a shore surface by water jets or similar techniques can readily redeposit on a neighboring surface. This paper reviews the shortcomings of the expensive mechanical cleanup methods and presents the overall mechanism and technique for restoration using chemical agents. Although the use of chemicals in intertidal zones has not been well accepted by some environmental and regulatory groups, there is limited documentation that use of these agents results in less environmental damage and more rapid and economical shoreline restoration than mechanical alternatives. In support of this argument, an actual instance wherein an extensive Tampa, Florida shoreline had been oiled by a spill from the S/S Delian Appolon and subsequently chemically restored, is described. Detailed biological sampling of the biota in the environs of the work area was conducted by Texas A&M University. Data from an oiled area, oiled and chemically cleaned area and a control (as is) area are supplied in the presentation. The implications and feasibility of simply allowing the oil to weather/biodegrade in areas where this would be permissible are discussed, as are the proper, as well as improper, applications of chemical agents for shoreline restoration.
© 1979 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P.; Lindblom, G.P. 1976. Some dissenting remarks on ‘Deleterious effects of Corexit 9527 on fertilization and development’. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 7:7, 127-128. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(76)90198-3.
Abstract
The following article discusses the relevance of laboratory toxicity studies of a chemical oil dispersant, in general, and the foregoing paper. While Lönning and Hagström use a sensitive means to determine the more subtle, sublethal effects of chemicals on marine life, two major aspects of their work should be clarified. First, a concentration of 1–10 ppm of chemical dispersant, wherein fertilization of the sea urchin egg was affected in their work, does not occur in the usual marine environment with proper use of the dispersant. Second, there is no evidence to support the conclusion that the specific chemical dispersants studied by Lönning and Hagström preferentially release ‘toxic substances’ from the crude oil.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 7, G.P. Canevari, G.P. Lindblom, Copyright 1976, with permission from Elsevier.

Canevari, G.P.; Fiocco, R.J.; Lessard, R.R.; Fingas, M. 1995. COREXIT 9580 shoreline cleaner: development, application, and status. In Lane, P. (ed.). The Use of Chemicals in Oil Spill Response. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 227-239. ISBN:0803119992.
Abstract
The cleanup of oiled shorelines has generally been by mechanical, labor-intensive means. The use of surfactants to deterge and lift the oil from the surface results in more complete and more rapid cleaning. Not only is the cleaning process more efficient, but it can also be less environmentally damaging since there is potentially much less human intrusion and stress on the biological community because chemicals can make washing effective at lower temperatures. This paper will describe research on chemical beach cleaners for treatment of oiled shorelines that was initiated in support of the cleaning activities in Prince William Sound (PWS) following the Valdez oil spill in March 1989. The concept for using beach cleaners for shoreline cleanup is to apply a pre-soak to the weathered crude oil on shore and then flush with sea water to wash the oil into a boomed area for subsequent recovery. Criteria imposed on the use of chemical beach cleaners for the cleanup of the Valdez spill were: (1) effective rock cleaning agents should have very little or no toxicity to marine and terrestrial life, (2) there should be no dispersion of the oil washed from the shoreline into the water column; oil was to be recovered by techniques such as skimming or sorbents, and (3) the agents should be on the EPA National Contingency Plan (NCP) list. A laboratory scale rock washing test was developed to measure cleaner effectiveness and dispersion. A large number of commercially available formulated products were evaluated, as well as developmental formulations. The commercial products included all of the available NCP-listed products which could function as cleaners. None of the commercial products completely satisfied all the requirements established by the agencies for beach cleaning. However, a new formula, called Corexit 9580, consisting of two surfactants and a solvent was developed. It exhibited low fish toxicity, low dispersancy and effective rock cleaning capability. Although it was not approved for use in Alaska other than testing, subsequent work at Environment Canada confirmed the outstanding cleaning effectiveness and very low toxicity of the new product, and it is currently on the approved product list in Canada. The paper reviews the laboratory and field testing conducted to prove out this new product and highlights more recent work on mangroves to explore the potential use of Corexit 9580 to save and restore oiled vegetation.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Canevari, G.P.; Calcavecchio, P.; Becker, K.W.; Lessard, R.R.; Fiocco, R.J. 2001. Key parameters affecting the dispersion of viscous oil. In 2001 International Oil Spill Conference: Global Strategies for Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: March 26-29, 2001, Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 479-483. URL
Abstract
Oil viscosity has been perceived as a major factor affecting the dispersibility of oil. Very high viscosity oils-20,000 centisokes (cs) or more-can readily be observed as resisting the breakup of the oil into dispersed droplets. However, there are instances where relatively viscous oil will disperse much more readily than another oil of similar viscosity. As extensive study has been conducted at ExxonMobil Research facilities in New Jersey to define the molecular makeup of 14 viscous heavy fuel oil products and to determine the property of the viscous oils, besides viscosity, that influences dispersibility. Dispersibility was measured by a standard laboratory dispersant test using a COREXIT dispersant selected from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Contingency Plan (NCP) product schedule. Initially, IATROSCAN (TLC) and gas chromatography data failed to show any correlation between chemical properties, such as sulfur, aromatics, paraffins, resins, vanadium, nickel content, etc. and dispersibility. However the analysis did identify a statistically significant relationship between a parameter based on normal paraffin content and dispersibility, which helps explain anomalies such as low viscosity oils that do not disperse. These results are expected to aid in guiding oil spill response for viscous oils.
© 2001 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P.; Bock, J.; Robbins, M. 1989. Improved dispersant based on microemulsion technology. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 317-320.
Abstract
An initial basic study focused on the interaction between dispersant surfactants and the oil-water interface. In essence, the study identified criteria to explain why a good dispersant is effective and why a poor dispersant is ineffective. The dynamic behavior of the oil-water interface, after the addition of the dispersant, was continuously monitored by a modified Wilhelmy plate device. This procedure provided much insight on the impact of the dispersant at the oil-water interface. One key finding of this study concerned the conditions for achieving very low interfacial tensions. It is known in microemulsion technology that a microemulsion formed by specific surfactants exhibits ultra-low interfacial tension against either oil or water. Microemulsion phase behavior studies then established that some specific surfactants, which form a certain type of microemulsion, are also highly effective dispersants, more effective than current stat-of-the-art products. This improvement results in the formation of much finer dispersed oil droplets generated by a very minimum and lower level of energy. This paper will review the results of the basic study and the subsequent formulation of an improved dispersant. Laboratory and field data evaluating and supporting the improved overall performance will be presented.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Canevari, G.P. et al. 1986. The Role of Chemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Control. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. 39p.

Capuzzo, J.M.; Lancaster, B.A. 1982. Physiological effects of petroleum hydrocarbons in larval lobsters (Homarus americanus): hydrocarbon accumulation and interference with lipid metabolism. In Vernberg, W.B.; Calabrese, A.; Thurberg, F.P.; Vernberg, F.J. (eds.). Physiological Mechanisms of Marine Pollutant Toxicity: Proceedings of a Symposium on Pollution and Marine Organisms, Held at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, November 30-December 3, 1981. New York: Academic Press. pp. 477-501. ISBN:0127184600.
Abstract
Using continuous flow bioassays, oil and oil/dispersant mixtures were used to contaminate food sources of larval American lobsters in order to determine lethal and sublethal effects of the pollutants on larval growth stages of the species. A 1:10 ratio of Corexit 9527/crude was used for these experiments. No additional toxicity was noted in oil/dispersant mixtures when compared to larvae exposed to a diet of crude oil-contaminated Artemia. Parameters included hydrocarbon content of water and tissues of larval lobsters, survival, molting rates, ammonia excretion rates, and O:N ratios.

Carr, R.S.; Neff, J.M.; Boehm, P.D. 1985. Large-scale continuous flow exposure systems for studying the fate and effects of chemically and physically dispersed oil on benthic marine communities. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 641.
Abstract
Large-scale (4,500 L) exposure tanks supplied with a high-volume flow of seawater (3 turnovers/tank/day) were used to assess the effects of oil and oil dispersant exposures- and t assemblages of compatible marine organisms. The tanks were filled (15 cm deep) with clean, natural sediments and a natural benthic community to become established before the test animals were introduced into the tanks. The test animals used in this study included juvenile lobsters (Homarus americanus), bay scallops (Argopecten irradians), soft-shelled clams (Mya arenaria), and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), all of which are commercially important species in New England. On August 8, 1984, 225 mL of light Arabian crude oil, equivalent to 50 mg/L oil added, were introduced into four of the six tanks. All the tanks were equipped with electric stirring devices and submersible electric water pumps to ensure adequate surface and vertical mixing. After 60 minutes, two of the oiled tanks received a 1:10 dispersant: oil spraying application of Corexit 9527. The mixing continued for six hours, during which time the seawater flow to the tanks was interrupted. After six hours, the seawater was restarted. Water, sediment flock, and tissue samples were analyzed for petroleum hydrocarbons by various techniques over the course of the three-month experiment. A number of physiological tests were performed with the experimental animals after the exposure to determine whether any subtle sublethal effects had occurred. These tests included bioenergetic, biochemical, and growth measurements. Seven days after the start of the experiment, the total hydrocarbon concentration was approximately twice as high in the mussels exposed to oil with dispersant as in those exposed only to oil, but this difference was less pronounced after three weeks. The aromatic compounds most persistently retained were the alkylated homologues of naphthalene, fluorine, phenanthrene. and dibenzothiophene, with the degree of accumulation roughly proportional to the degree of alkylation. For both oil and oil with dispersant groups, alkylated (C2 and C3) dibenzothiophenes were the compounds accumulated and retained to the greatest extent. No mortalities were observed as a result of the oil or oil with dispersant exposures. Highly significant differences were observed for Mya arenaria between the controls and both oil and oil with dispersant groups for condition index and shell growth measurements after two weeks. The condition index returned to control levels after four weeks, but the reduced shell growth rates persisted for the duration of the experiment. 0: N ratios for mussels and glycogen determinations of scallop adductor muscle and lobster digestive gland were significantly decreased at certain times for different treatments as compared with the controls. When sublethal effects were detected, they were usually observed for both oil and oil with dispersant treatments. From the results of this study we were unable to conclude that chemically dispersing the oil was more or less detrimental to the animals than physical dispersion alone. We believe that large-scale exposure systems are excellent models for evaluating the fate and sublethal effects of noxious agents on marine organisms.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Carr, R.S.; Neff, J.M.; Boehm, P.D. 1987. A study of the fate and effects of chemically and physically dispersed oil on benthic marine communities using large-scale continuous flow exposure systems. In Vernberg, W.B. (ed.). Pollution Physiology of Estuarine Organisms. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 47-68. ISBN:0872495108.

Carr, R.S.; Lindén, O. 1984. Bioenergetic responses of Gammarus salinus and Mytilus edulis to oil and oil dispersants in a model ecosystem. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 19:3, 285-291. ISSN:0171-8630.
Abstract
As part of a multifaceted study to assess the impact of oil and oil dispersants on a model littoral ecosystem in the Baltic Sea, bioenergetic (O:N ratio) measurements were made for 2 of the predominant species, the mussel Mytilus edulis and the amphipod Gammarus salinus. In addition, ammonia excretion and respiration rate measurements for G. salinus and byssal thread production rates and spawning frequency observations for M. edulis were made. Four days after the start of the exposure, significant effects on byssal thread production rates and spawning frequency were observed for the oil/dispersant treatment. After 12 d the oil/dispersant group apparently had recovered whereas the oil-only group was exhibiting abnormal spawning behavior. No effects on ammonia excretion rates, respiration rates or O:N rates were observed after 1 d for G. salinus. After 10 d, however, highly significant differences were recorded between experimental groups and controls for all 3 parameters. While both oil and oil/dispersant treatments produced subtle physiological alterations in the animals investigated, the use of a chemical dispersant apparently resulted in a more rapid recovery of the species investigated than would have occurred if the oil had not been chemically dispersed.
© Inter Research Science Center, 1984. Used with permission of IR.

Cashion, B.S. 1982. Factors Affecting Droplet Size During Aerial Application of Chemical Dispersants: A Literature Review. Unpublished Report. USA Exxon Research & Engineering Co. 4p.

Castle, R.W.; Schrier, E. 1979. Decision criteria for the chemical dispersion of oil spills. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca., March, 1979. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 459-463.
Abstract
Chemical dispersion promises to play an increasing role in the control of oil spills in the United States. The question of when and how dispersants are best used to protect the environment is the subject of considerable controversy. This controversy is generated, on one hand, by insufficient understanding of real-world dispersant effectiveness and environmental implications, and on the other, by lack of guidelines by which all relevant factors can be considered together. With time, the first aspect will ultimately be resolved. This paper presents an approach to the second. While a certain degree of pre-planning and preliminary decision-making can be accomplished, ultimate decisions to conduct chemical dispersions should be made on a case-by-case basis. Criteria for determining the acceptability of chemically treating a specific incident include human risk, feasibility and adequacy of physical control and recovery, dispersibility of the oil, logistic considerations, and whether dispersion will achieve a reduction in environmental impacts and interference with water usage. Assessed conservatively, these criteria should provide the basis for sound and acceptable decisionmaking. As knowledge in the use of dispersants improves, the validity of decisions using these criteria is expected to improve.
© 1979 with permission from API.

Castritsi-Catharios, J.; Moraiti-Ioannidou, M.; Mavrikakis, K. 1987. Study of the sensitivity of two Artemia populations to a dispersant and a mixture of it and diesel oil. Biologia Gallo-Hellenica, 12:253-258. ISSN:0750-7321.

Castritsi-Catharios, J. 1987. Short term toxicity tests with oil-dispersant mixtures using two Artemia strains. In Sorgeloos, P.; Bengtson, D.A.; Jaspers, E. (eds.). Artemia Research and its Applications: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on the Brine Shrimp (Artemia), Organized under the Patronage of His Majesty the King of Belgium. Volume 1. Morphology, Genetics, Strain Characterization, Toxicology. Wetteren, Belgium: Universa Press. pp. 333.

Castritsi-Catharios, J.; Karka, A.; Moraiti-Ioannidou, M. 1980. Toxicité de détergents et d’un dispersant sur Artemia salina. Revue des Travaux de l'Institut des Pêches Maritimes, 1980:4, 355-364. ISSN:0035-2276.

Castro, R. 1999. Toxicity of Dispersants and Dispersed Oil to Marine Organisms. Thesis (M.S.), Texas A & M University-Kingsville. 99 leaves.

Cedre. 1981. Recommendations for the Use of Dispersants at Sea to Control Oil Slicks. Brest, France: Cedre. 15p.

Celius, H.K.; Vassbotn, T. 1985. Studies of Emulsification, Emulsion Prevention and Underwater Dispersion. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 30p.
Abstract
Experiments were undertaken involving laboratory studies in a small turbulent oil plume, investigations using revolving flasks, and in a small field test using a combined gas/oil plume. Tests revealed that emulsion is formed in plume from underwater blowouts, but that the formation of emulsion was averted by the presence of small amounts of demulsifiers or dispersants (250 ppm). Larger concentrations of dispersants broke up the oil, which was transported to the upper water level in the plume.

Centre de Documentation, de Recherche et d'Éxperimentations sur les Pollutions des Eaux. 1987. Utilisation des Dispersants pour Lutter Contre des déVersements de Pétrole en Mer: Manuel de Traitement des Nappes par Bateau. Brest, France: Cedre/IFP. 28p.

Chadwick, H.K. 1960. Toxicity of Tricon oil spill eradicator to striped bass (Roccus saxatilus). California Fish and Game, 46:371-372. ISSN:0008-1078.

Chan, K.Y.; Chiu, S.Y. 1985. The effects of diesel oil and oil dispersants on growth, photosynthesis, and respiration of Chlorella salina. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 14:3, 325-331. ISSN:0090-4341. DOI:10.1007/BF01055410.
Abstract
Low concentrations of BP light diesel (0.05%) and the oil dispersant BP1100X (0.005%), either alone or in mixture, stimulated the growth rate, biomass yield, chlorophyll a level and photosynthesis of the estuarine green alga Chlorella salina CU-1, while the same concentrations slightly inhibited algal respiration. The increase in the level of chlorophyll a may be one of the factors leading to elevated photosynthesis. BP light diesel and BP1100X at higher concentrations, as well as the oil dispersants BP1100WD and Shell Oil Herder at all the tested concentrations, reduced growth, chlorophyll a level, photosynthesis, and respiration of the algal cells. The inhibitory action of BP light diesel and the oil dispersants was concentration-dependent. Although both algal photosynthesis and respiration were reduced by BP light diesel and the oil dispersants, the effect on respiration was less severe when compared with that on photosynthesis. Shell Oil Herder, either alone or in combination with BP light diesel, were most toxic among the three oil dispersants tested.
© CSA, 1985.

Chandrasekar, S.; Sorial, G.A.; Weaver, J.W. 2006. Dispersant effectiveness on oil spills – impact of salinity. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 63:8, 1418-1430. ISSN:1054-3139. DOI:10.1016/j.icesjms.2006.04.019.
Abstract
Three oils and two dispersants were used to examine the factors that influence dispersant effectiveness in the Baffled Flask test. Oils were tested at three weathering levels to better understand the interactions between salinity and factors such as temperature, oil weathering, and mixing energy. Salinity was important in determining the significance of temperature and mixing energy on the effectiveness of dispersants for nearly all oil/dispersant types.

Chandrasekar, S.; Sorial, G.A.; Weaver, J.W. 2003. Determining dispersant effectiveness data for a suite of environmental conditions. In IOSC 2003 Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Restoration, Perspectives for a Cleaner Environment: April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 331-334. URL
Abstract
Chemical dispersants are used in oil spill response operations to enhance the dispersion of oil slicks at sea as small oil droplets in the water column. To assess the impacts of dispersant usage on oil spills, US EPA is developing a simulation model called the EPA Research Object- Oriented Oil Spill (ERO3S) model (http://www.epa.gov/athens/research/projects/eros/). Due to the complexity of chemical and physical interactions between spilled oil, dispersants and the sea, an empirical approach to the interaction between the dispersant and oil slick may provide a useful or practical approach for including dispersants in a model. The main objective of this research was to create a set of empirical data on three oils and two dispersants that has the potential for use as an input to the ERO3s model. These data are intended to give an indication of the amount of dispersal of these oils under certain environmental conditions. Recently, the US EPA developed an improved dispersant testing protocol, called the baffled flask test (BFT), which was a refinement of the swirling flask test. Use of this protocol was the basis of the experiments conducted in this study. The variations in the effectiveness of dispersants caused by changes in oil composition, dispersant type, and the environmentally related variables of temperature, oil weathering, and rotational speed of the BFT were studied. The three oils that were tested were South Louisiana Crude Oil, Alaska North Slope Crude, and Number 2 fuel oil. Two dispersants that scored effectiveness above 85% by the BFT were selected for this study. A factorial experimental design was conducted for each of the three oils for four factors: volatilization, dispersant type, temperature and flask speed. Each of the four factors were studied at three levels except for the dispersant factor where only two dispersants were considered. Statistical analysis of the experimental data were performed separately for the three oils. Analysis of variance was conducted to determine which factors, or set of factors, were related to the percent effectiveness. Empirical relationships between the amount of oil dispersed and the variables studied were developed.
© 2003 with permission from API.

Chandrasekar, S. 2004. Dispersant Effectiveness Data for a Suite of Environmental Conditions. Thesis (M.S.), University of Cincinnati. 159 leaves. URL

Chandrasekar, S.; Sorial, G.A.; Weaver, J.W. 2005. Dispersant effectiveness on three oils under various simulated environmental conditions. Environmental Engineering Science, 22:3, 324-336. ISSN:1092-8758.
Abstract
A factorial experimental design was performed using the Baffled Flask test to determine which factors (temperature, oil type, oil weathering, dispersant type, and/or rotation speed) are related to dispersant effectiveness. Three light to medium oils were used in this experiment (Number 2 fuel oil, South Louisiana crude oil, and Prudhoe Bay crude oil). Data analysis suggests a two-way interaction between factors; for South Louisiana crude oil, temperature and mixing energy; for Prudhoe Bay crude, temperature, mixing energy, and weathering; and for Number 2 fuel oil, only temperature. Researchers developed empirical relationships between amount of oil dispersed and variables that were studied.

Chaplin, A.E. 1971. The effects of oil-spill emulsifiers on the metabolism of crustacea. In Oil Pollution Research Unit. Annual Report for 1971. Pembroke, Wales, U.K.: Field Studies Council, Orielton Field Centre. pp. 39-45.

Chapman, H.; Purnell, K.; Law, R.J.; Kirby, M.F. 2007. The use of chemical dispersants to combat oil spills at sea: a review of practice and research needs in Europe. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 54:7, 827-838. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.012.
Abstract
In order to better understand the practice of dispersant use, a review has been undertaken of marine oil spills over a 10 year period (1995–2005), looking in particular at variations between different regions and oil-types. This viewpoint presents and analyses the review data and examines a range of dispersant use policies. The paper also discusses the need for a reasoned approach to dispersant use and introduces past cases and studies to highlight lessons learned over the past ten years, focusing on dispersant effectiveness and monitoring; toxicity and environmental effects; the use of dispersants in low salinity waters; response planning and future research needs.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 54, H. Chapman, K. Purnell, R.J. Law, M.F. Kirby, Copyright 2007, with permission from Elsevier.

Chapman, J. 1998. Australian protocols for toxicity testing of oil dispersants and oil/dispersant mixtures: a discussion paper. In Australian Maritime Safety Authority: Eighth Environmental and Scientific Coordinator's Workshop: 24th-26th August, 1998, Cairns. Canberra: Australian Maritime Safety Authority. pp. 2.57-2.73. URL

Chapman, P. 1984. Oil spill dispersants: does South Africa have an alternative? In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 414-427. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
The role of geographic and socioeconomic factors on the effects of oil pollution in South Africa is discussed. The sparse population and natural mechanisms provide little reason for alarm in the case of an oil spill at sea except for certain higher risk areas. Effects of previous spills are outlined, and governance policy with regard to dispersant usage is discussed.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Chapman, P. 1985. Oil Concentrations in Seawater Following Dispersion With and Without the Use of Chemical Dispersants: A Review of Published Data. Cape Town: Republic of South Africa, Dept. of Environment Affairs, Sea Fisheries Research Institute. 23p. ISBN:0621073873.

Charalambous, P. 1998. Marine Oil Spill Cleaning Method: The Use of Dispersants. Thesis (M.S.), SUNY Maritime College. 76 leaves.

Chau, A.; Sproule, J.; Mackay, D. 1987. Study Of The Fundamental Mechanism Of Chemical Dispersion Of Oil Spills. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 25p. URL

Chau, A.; Mackay, D. 1987. A study of oil dispersion: the role of mixing and weathering. In Proceedings of the Tenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 9-11, 1987, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 373-384. ISBN:0662154630.

Chau, E.; Chau, A.; Shiu, W.Y.; Mackay, D. 1986. Multi-Hit Dispersion Of Oil Spills. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service. 45p.

Chen, A.C.T. 1999. Design considerations for a fire-monitor based dispersant application system. In Proceedings: Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 2 to 4, 1999, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 187-196.
Abstract
Research undertaken by Exxon Production Research Co. demonstrated that fire monitors could be used effectively in dispersant application if proper nozzles, pressures, flow rates, dispersant metering, and vessel operation practices to achieve proper dosages were used. Two systems were recommended, one of which automatically monitored water flow and injected the correct amount of dispersant in real-time, independent of pressure in the water line.

Chen, H.C.; Chang, C.F. 1979. Toxic effects of some surfactants on the larvae of milkfish and grass shrimp. National Science Council Monthly, 7:7, 733-740. ISSN:0250-1651.

Chope, O. 1992. The Toxicity of Two Oil Dispersants to Various Life Stages of the Bivalves Crassostrea gigas and Mytilus edulis. Thesis (M.Sc.), University of Wales. 51 leaves.

Chukwu, L.O.; Odunzeh, C.C. 2006. Relative toxicity of spent lubricant oil and detergent against benthic macro-invertebrates of a west African estuarine lagoon. Journal of Environmental Biology, 27:3, 479-484. ISSN:0254-8704.

Churchill, P.F.; Churchill, S.A. 1997. Surfactant-enhanced biodegradation of solid alkanes. Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part A. Environmental Science and Engineering & Toxic and Hazardous Substance Control, 32:1, 293-306. ISSN:1077-1204.
Abstract
Four microbial species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 9027), Rhodococcus erythropolis and two Acinetobacter strains, were used to discover the effects of Triton X-100 and Tween-80 on their ability to biodegrade octadecane. P. aeruginosa and R. erythropolis showed enhanced mineralization of octadecane in the presence of the surfactants. The Acinetobacter strains showed higher rates of degradation of octadecane in the absence of Triton X-100 and Tween-80.

Cintrón, G.; Lugo, A.E.; Martínez, R.; Cintrón, B.B.; Encarnación, L. 1981. Impact of Oil in the Tropical Marine Environment. San Juan: Departamento de Recursos Naturales. 46p.
Abstract
Oil spills have a devastating effect on biologically rich coastal environments. This report investigates this problem, covering damage by oil to biological systems, the use of dispersants (toxicity and considerations for dispersant use), impact of oil and dispersants on coral reefs, impact of oil on seagrass beds and sandy beaches, impact of oil on mangroves (seedling survival and tolerance, regeneration, forest type vulnerability, and cleanup and recovery activities in mangroves), conclusions, and recommendations. The study concludes that coral reefs and seagrass beds may escape significant spill damage if pollution is not chronic and if dispersants are not used. Sandy and rocky shores may be severely impacted but recover quickly. Mangroves are the most vulnerable coastal ecosystem. Recommendations are that oil spill contingency plans must be prepared for all areas, and that the necessary equipment for the plans must be in place.

Clark, J.R.; Becker, K.; Venosa, A.; Lewis, A. 2005. Assessing dispersant effectiveness for heavy fuel oils using small-scale laboratory tests. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 59-63. URL
Abstract
Four bench-scale dispersant tests were used to evaluate three dispersants, Corexit 9500, Superdispersant 25 and Agma Superconcentrate DR 379 with an IFO (Intermediate Fuel Oil) 180 and an IFO 380. Dispersant effectiveness was assessed using the Swirling Flask Test (SFT) and Baffled Flask Test (BFT) developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Exxon Dispersant Effectiveness Test (EXDET) developed by ExxonMobil, and the Warren Spring Laboratory (WSL) test utilized in the United Kingdom. This study allows comparisons among the small-scale laboratory tests and provides a basis to compare dispersant effectiveness data with findings from at-sea field trials and wave basin studies conducted with the same dispersants and oils. No single dispersant performed with the highest effectiveness under all test methods, but the data demonstrate that viscous oils such as IFO 380s could be dispersed under the right conditions. The results show that laboratory tests with greater mixing energy yield the highest estimates of dispersant effectiveness.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Clark, J.R.; Bragin, G.E.; Febbo, R.J.; Letinski, D.J. 2001. Toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed oils under continuous and environmentally realistic exposure conditions: applicability to dispersant use decisions in spill response planning. In 2001 International Oil Spill Conference: Global Strategies for Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: March 26-29, 2001, Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 1249-1255. URL
Abstract
As part of efforts to develop standardized testing protocols under the Chemical Response to Oil Spills Environmental Research Forum (CROSERF) and apply the results to real-world scenarios, three types of oil and two dispersants were tested in both continuous and short-term spiked exposures using the early life-stages of several marine organisms. Test species included embryo-larval stages of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), two marine mysids (Holmesimysis costata and Mysidopsis bahia), and two marine fishes (turbot, Scophthalmus maximus and inland silverside, Menidia beryllina). Oils were physically dispersed in seawater by vortex mixing in a flask and chemically dispersed using the same approach with COREXIT® 9527 or COREXIT® 9500 applied in a 10:1 oil-to-dispersant ratio to generate maximum exposure concentrations. Continuous exposure tests followed standard testing protocols for 96-hour or 48-hour duration, according to demands of the test species. Spiked exposures reflect continuous dilution of water column concentrations (half-life ~107 minutes), as observed in the field when oil is dispersed into open waters. Results are reported as the acute LC50s. Tests oil included fresh and weathered Kuwait crude, fresh Forties crude, and a Medium Fuel Oil (MFO) mix. Exposure concentrations for oil tests were quantified using gas chromatography and expressed as the sum of the C10 to C36 components, or TPH(resolved). Dispersant exposure concentrations were verified by UV spectrophotometric analysis. Not all species were tested with each oil and dispersant. For dispersants tested individually, constant exposure LC50s ranged from 3 to 75 mg/L, with oyster the most sensitive and turbot the least sensitive species. Spiked exposure LC50s ranged from 14 to >1055 mg/L among all test species. Dispersants were up to 36 times less toxic under spiked exposure conditions compared to similar treatments under constant exposure conditions. For oils, LC50s based on TPH(resolved) are similar for both the physically and chemically dispersed oil, demonstrating that dispersant did not increase the toxicity of oils based on measured exposures. Under constant exposure conditions, test species are very similar in sensitivity to the oils, with most LC50s around 0.5 ppm TPH(resolved). Spiked exposures were 4 to 100 fold less toxic to these test organisms. The more environmentally realistic spiked exposures demonstrate that standard, continuous exposure test data overestimate the potential toxicity of dispersed oil. When laboratory toxicity data are used as part of a dispersant approval process for spill response, the decision should take into account whether exposure durations and sensitivity of test species are representative of conditions in the spill area.
© 2001 with permission from API.

Clark, R.B. 1971. The biological consequences of oil pollution of the sea. In Water Pollution as a World Problem: The Legal, Scientific and Political Aspects: Report of a Conference Held at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 11/12 July 1970. London: Europa Publications, for the David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies. pp. 53-73. ISBN:0900362413.

Clarke, P.J.; Ward, T.J. 1994. The response of southern hemisphere saltmarsh plants and gastropods to experimental contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 175:1, 43-57. ISSN:0022-0981. DOI:10.1016/0022-0981(94)90175-9.
Abstract
Field experiments examined the response of two common perennial saltmarsh plants and their gastropod epifauna to the effects of weathered petroleum hydrocarbons. Application of the petroleum hydrocarbons to the saltmarsh mimicked an accidental spill, but confined the contamination to small areas. Populations of the perennial chenopod, Sarcocornia quinqueflora, and the perennial grass, Sporobolus virginicus, showed little inertia and senesced rapidly after the application of weathered Bass Strait crude oil and diesel (11 · m-2). No resprouting from underground stems or recruitment of seedling was detected up to 17 months after the application of hydrocarbons to Sarcocornia. Dead stems of the perennial grass Sporobolus persisted in areas treated with oil and diesel for up to 12 months, but showed no signs of resprouting from basal shoots or rhizomes originating from culms within the treated areas. Slow recovery from rhizomes originating outside the plots was evident after a few months but tiller growth appeared to be inhibited by residual hydrocarbons. No recruitment of seedlings was observed in the denuded plots and no other macrophytes were observed to colonise these areas until the end of the study (17 months). The response of saltmarsh gastropods to petroleum hydrocarbons shows greater inertia and stability than the vascular plants. Initial mortality was high, but migrations from the edges of the treated areas restored densities to control and pre-treatments levels within a few months. The reduction in cover of plants apparently had little effect on the abundance of gastropods although residual effects of the hydrocarbons may have inhibited predators of gastropods from the openings created by the death of saltmarsh plants. We predict that the widespread contamination of saltmarshes in south-eastern Australia by spills of crude oil or diesel would result in the loss of vegetation cover and reductions in the abundance of gastropod epifauna.
Reprinted from Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, Volume 175, P.J. Clarke, T.J. Ward, Copyright 1994, with permission from Elsevier.

Clayton, Jr., J.R. 1992. Chemical Oil Spill Dispersants; Evaluation of Three Laboratory Procedures for Estimating Performance. Cincinnati, Oh.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. 195p.
Abstract
The report presents data from studies designed to evaluate characteristics of selected bench-scale test methods for estimating performance of chemical agents for dispersing oil from surface slicks into an underlying water column. In order to mitigate the effect of surface slicks with chemical dispersant agents, however, an on-scene coordinator must have information and an understanding of performance characteristics for available dispersant agents. Performance of candidate dispersant agents can be estimated on the basis of laboratory testing procedures that are designed to evaluate performance of different agents. Data presented in the report assist in the evaluation of candidate test methods for estimating performance of candidate dispersant agents. Three test methods were selected for evaluating performance: the currently accepted Revised Standard EPA test, Environmental Canada's Swirling Flask test, and the IFP-Dilution test.

Clayton, Jr., J.R. 1993. Chemical Shoreline Cleaning Agents: Evaluation of Two Laboratory Procedures for Estimating Performance. Cincinnati, Oh.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory. 137p.

Clayton, Jr., J.R. 1993. Chemical Shoreline Cleaning Agents for Oil Spills: Update State-of-the-Art on Mechanisms of Action and Factors Influencing Performance. Cincinnati, Oh.: Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 48p.
Abstract
The purpose of the report is to provide an updated review of information from the available literature for (1) the mechanism of action of cleaning by chemical agents for oil that strands on shorelines, (2) variables affecting performance of these chemical agents, (3) evaluations of laboratory tests designed to assess performance of such agents, and (4) a brief consideration of actual applications of chemical cleaning agents in field situations. Considerations also are given to strengths and limitations of specific laboratory tests, including brief discussions of the applicability of test results for estimating performance of chemical cleaning agents in field trials or conditions encountered in real-world spill events. Finally, a modest attempt is made at providing recommendations for needed research in the laboratory and field for chemical cleaning agents.

Clayton, Jr., J.R.; Payne, J.R.; Farlow, J.S. 1993. Oil Spill Dispersants: Mechanisms of Action and Laboratory Tests. Boca Raton, FL.: C.K. Smoley. 113p. ISBN:0873719468.

Clayton, Jr., J.R. et al. 1996. Methodology for estimating cleaning effectiveness and dispersion of oil with shoreline cleaning agents in the field. In Proceedings, Nineteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1996, Sandman Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 423-451.

Clayton, Jr., J.R. et al. 1989. Effects of chemical dispersant agents on the behavior and retention of spilled crude oil in a simulated streambed channel. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 4-24. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
Field experiments were performed to obtain first-step estimates of the effects of selected chemical dispersant agents (OFC D-609 an Corexit 9550) on the behavior and retention of spilled crude oil in a shallow freshwater streambed environment in southcentral Alaska. Comparisons between experiments with and without pre-spill additions of dispersants to the oil included measurements of oil in sediment and water samples. Sediment and water contamination by oil was quantified by flame ionization detector capillary gas chromatography (FID-GC) as well as visual observations in the simulated streambed channel following the spill events. Inclusion of dispersants in the oil produced the intended result of enhancing dispersion of oil into the aqueous phase. However, distributions of oil in aqueous and sediment samples were controlled by interactions between a variety of factors including rheological properties of the oil (for example, oil/water interfacial surface tension values), particle size distributions of sediment matrices, exposure of sediment surfaces to oil, and in situ water flow characteristics at specific streambed channel sites. The results imply that use of chemical dispersants to mitigate effects of oil spills in freshwater streambed environments must include an understanding of the interplay between variables related to both the type of oil released and the specific streambed environment.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Clean Seas Inc. 1979. Oil Spill Cleanup Manual: Final Report. San Francisco, Ca.: Woodward-Clyde Consultants. (no page information available).

Coastal Response Research Center. 2006. Research and Development Needs for Making Decisions Regarding Dispersing Oil. Durham, N.H.: University of New Hampshire. 29p. URL

Coelho, G.M.; Bragin, G.E.; Aurand, D.V.; Clark, J.R.; Wright, D.A. 1995. Field and laboratory investigation of the toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed oil. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 1117-1131.

Coelho, G.M.; Aurand, D. 1996. Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum. Purcellville, Va.: Ecosystem Management & Associates. 1 Volume.

Coelho, G.M.; Aurand, D. 1997. Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum. Purcellville, Va.: Ecosystem Management & Associates. 1 Volume.

Coelho, G.M.; Aurand, D.V. 1998. Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum. Purcellville, Va.: Ecosystem Management & Associates, Inc. 53p. URL

Coelho, G.M.; Aurand, D.; Wright, D.A. 1999. Biological uptake analysis of organisms exposed to oil and chemically dispersed oil. In Proceedings: Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 2 to 4, 1999, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 685-694.

Cohen, A.M.; Nugegoda, D. 2000. Toxicity of three oil spill remediation techniques to the Australian bass Macquaria novemaculeata. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 47:2, 178-185. ISSN:0147-6513. DOI:10.1006/eesa.2000.1946.
Abstract
Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, were exposed to the water accommodated fraction (WAF) of Bass Strait crude oil, dispersed crude oil, burnt crude oil, and 4-chlorophenol. The WAF of dispersed crude oil was the most toxic treatment with 96-h LC(50) values of 7. 15% (7.94% upper and 6.42% lower 95% CI) and 7.45% (8.26% upper and 6.71% lower 95% CI). The WAF of crude oil was less toxic, with 96-h LC(50) values of 43.72% (49.21% upper and 38.87% lower 95% CI) and 45.87% (51.51% upper and 40.97% lower 95% CI). The WAF of burnt crude oil was the least toxic treatment with 96-h LC(50) values of 49.81% (63.33% upper and 39.44% lower 95% CI) and 47.28% (59.72% upper and 37.62% lower 95% CI). Sublethal toxicity of the crude oil WAF and burnt crude oil WAF was observed at dilutions seven to eight times less than in the dispersed crude oil WAF.
Reprinted from Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Volume 47, A.M. Cohen, D. Nugegoda, Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.

Cohen, A.M.; Nugegoda, D.; Gagnon, M.M. 2001. Metabolic responses of fish following exposure to two different oil spill remediation techniques. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 48:3, 178-185. ISSN:0147-6513. DOI:10.1006/eesa.2000.2020.
Abstract
To assess the impacts of two oil spill remediation techniques on fish metabolism, change in aerobic and anaerobic enzyme activities in juvenile Australian Bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, was examined. Changes in cytochrome C oxidase (CCO) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities were investigated following exposure to the crude oil water accommodated fraction (WAF) and chemically dispersed crude oil WAF. There was a significant stimulation in CCO activity in the gills and livers of fish exposed to the WAF of Bass Strait crude oil and chemically dispersed crude oil, compared to the control treatment. In addition, LDH activity was significantly stimulated in the liver of fish exposed to dispersed crude oil WAF, compared to the crude oil WAF. Fish exposed to the dispersed crude oil WAF treatment had significantly higher oxygen consumption, as measured by oxygen depletion in a sealed chamber, than fish exposed to the crude oil WAF and control treatments.
Reprinted from Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Volume 2001, A.M. Cohen, D. Nugegoda, M.M. Gagnon, Copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier.

Cohen, A.M.; Nugegoda, D.; Gagnon, M.M. 2001. The effect of different oil spill remediation techniques on petroleum hydrocarbon elimination in Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 40:2, 264-270. ISSN:0090-4341. DOI:10.1007/s002440010171.
Abstract
Petroleum hydrocarbons were investigated in juvenile Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, following exposure to the water accommodated fraction (WAF) of Bass Strait crude oil, chemically dispersed crude oil, and burnt crude oil. Each treatment was administered for 16 days either through the water column or through the diet (amphipod, Allorchestes compressa). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) elimination was determined by measuring biliary benzo(a)pyrene (B(a)P) and naphthalene-type metabolites. Biliary PAH-type metabolite concentrations varied with the type of oil spill remediation technique, route of exposure (food versus water), and exposure concentration. Fish exposed to chemically dispersed crude oil via the water exhibited the highest PAH-type biliary metabolite concentrations, relative to fish exposed to other treatments. In fish exposed via the diet, the highest concentration of both types of biliary metabolites also appeared in the dispersed oil–exposed individuals. The results suggest that chemically dispersing oil may have the greatest effect on bioavailability of hydrocarbons, both through waterborne and food chain exposures.
© Springer, 2001. Reproduced with kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Cohen, A.M.; Gagnon, M.M.; Nugegoda, D. 2005. Alterations of metabolic enzymes in Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata, after exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 49:2, 200-205. ISSN:0090-4341. DOI:10.1007/s00244-004-0174-1.
Abstract
Australian bass Macquaria novemaculeata were exposed to the water-accommodated fraction of Bass Strait crude oil, dispersed crude oil, or burnt crude oil to assess sublethal effects of oil spill remediation techniques on fish. Fish were exposed to these treatments for 16 days either through the water column or by way of a pre-exposed diet of amphipod Allorchestes compressa. Fish gills, liver, and white muscle were sampled and cytochrome C oxidase (CCO) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities quantified. In all treatments containing fish exposed by way of the water column, aerobic activity increased in the gills, whereas a decrease of this enzymic activity was observed in the liver and white muscle. Exposures by way of the food pathway indicated similar trends. Anaerobic (LDH) activity increased in the gills, liver, and white muscle after waterborne exposures. Stimulation in anaerobic activity also occurred in the liver and white muscle of fish after exposure to contaminated food. CCO activity in the gills was the most sensitive biomarker when monitoring waterborne exposures to petroleum hydrocarbons. In the gills, the dispersed oil treatment resulted in the most pronounced biological response, suggesting that in the short term the use of dispersants on an oil slick might cause the most perturbations to fish metabolism.
© Springer, 2005. Reproduced with kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

Cohen, A.M.; Gagnon, M.M.; Nugegoda, D. 2003. Biliary PAH metabolite elimination in Australian bass, Macquaria novemaculeata following exposure to Bass Strait crude oil and chemically dispersed crude oil. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70:2, 394-400. ISSN:0007-4861. DOI:10.1007/s00128-002-0204-5.

Coit, R.A. 1978. Dispersant usage for offshore oil spills. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 226-235. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
In some situations the use of dispersants to control oil spills is environmentally desirable and is an accepted practice in many areas of the world. In the U.S. the use of dispersants has historically (1967) been discouraged by federal regulation, due primarily to the early concern over the use of some toxic dispersants. Since 1967 it has become very apparent that the use of low-toxicity dispersants to control oil spills may be the most environmentally sound control approach in offshore areas, particularly when an oil spill may approach a sensitive coastline. A task force was appointed over a year ago by the API to make recommendations on the utilization of dispersants based on studies of current information on dispersants and mechanical recovery equipment. The task force believes that the use of low-toxicity dispersants should be encouraged where justified, specifically when it would be the most cost effective and biologically sound method of controlling an offshore oil spill. For this reason the National Contingency Plan should be revised so that the responsible on-scene coordinator (OSC) has authority over the use of dispersants. The OSC should be able to decide to use dispersants, as part of preplanned contingency plan implementations, to control offshore oil spills that threaten to move into sensitive environmental areas.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Colcomb, K.; Salt, D.; Peddar, M.; Lewis, A. 2005. Determination of the limiting oil viscosity for chemical dispersion at sea. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 53-58. URL
Abstract
Many previous studies using laboratory test methods have shown that the ability to disperse spilled oils depends on several factors including: spilled oil properties (and how these change with oil weathering), the mixing energy, and the dispersant-to-oil ratio (DOR). There appears to be a ‘limiting oil viscosity’ value that, when exceeded, causes a sharp reduction in the effectiveness of a dispersant. The results obtained in laboratory tests are relative and not absolute, and it has therefore proved very difficult to correlate dispersant effectiveness results from these laboratory tests with dispersant performance at sea. A series of small-scale dispersant tests were conducted at sea in the English Channel in June 2003. Several small test slicks of residual fuel oils of different viscosity grades were laid on the sea and immediately sprayed with different dispersants at different DORs. Observers used a simple ranking system to visually assess the degree of dispersion that occurred when a cresting wave passed through an area of the dispersant-treated oil. Collation of the results showed that there were obvious and consistent differences in the degree of effectiveness observed with different combinations of oil viscosity, dispersant and treatment rate.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Colcomb-Heiliger, K. 1997. Investigations into the Use of Demulsifiers as a Countermeasure to Oil Spills at Sea. Oxfordshire, U.K.: AEA Technology. (no page information available). ISBN:0856248916.
Abstract
The report describes a programme of work completed in 1992 into the use of demulsifiers on oil spills at sea. Emulsion formation often follows a spill at sea which results in an increase in the volume of the pollutant and an increased persistence on the sea surface. This report describes large scale sea trials undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of the aerial application of demulsifiers undertaken by Warren Spring Laboratory. The report concludes that the aerial application of demulsifier solution has considerable potential and that the most promising aspect must be their application to thicker, and probably more persistent, areas of oil and emulsion.
© CSA, 1997.

Connor, P.M. 1972. Further investigations into the toxicity of oil and dispersants. In International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Fisheries Improvement Committee. C.M. 1972/E:14, 4p.

Conway, M.A. 1987. A history of the development of oil dispersant guidelines for Alaska. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 189-192.
Abstract
The Oil Dispersant Guidelines for Alaska, Cook Inlet Section, were implemented on August 6, 1986, when the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Coast Guard, and Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation signed a Memorandum of Agreement. State and federal agencies, private industry, commercial fishermen, and environmentalists had to work together toward this achievement. Without this cooperative effort, there would be no planning for effective dispersant use in Alaska as a spill control method.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Cook Inlet Spill Prevention and Response Inc. 1991. Salmon Tainting by Untreated and Chemically Dispersed Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil. Anchorage, Ak.: Alaskan Clean Seas. 93p.

Cook, C.B.; Knap, A.H. 1983. Effects of crude oil and chemical dispersant on photosynthesis in the brain coral Diploria strigosa. Marine Biology, 78:1, 21-27. ISSN:0025-3162. DOI:10.1007/BF00392967.
Abstract
Brain corals exposed to Arabian Light crude oil and Corexit 9527 (19 ppm to 1 ppm ratio) for 8 hours in a flowing seawater system resulted in an 85% reduction of photosynthesis by symbiotic zooxanthellae. This appeared to impact the processes responsible for the synthesis of photosynthetic products to lipids, particularly storage lipids. Restoration of carbon fixation was apparent within 3 to 5 hours after treatment, and lipid synthesis returned to normal between 5 and 24 hours after exposure.

Cooper, D.; Volchek, K.; Cathum, S.; Peng, H.; Lane, J. 2003. Trace dispersant detection and removal. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, June 10-12, 2003, Victoria (British Columbia) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 799-812.

Corbin, R.F.; Ott, G.L. 1985. Federal region II regional contingency planning for a dispersant decision process. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 417-420.
Abstract
In the fall of 1983, the Third Coast Guard District began to coordinate contingency planning and develop a dispersant use decision process that would establish guidelines for considering and authorizing the use of chemical dispersants by Coast Guard On-Scene Coordinators (OSC) as an oil spill response alternative. Contingency planning covered three areas: Background and education, the what, why, and where of dispersants; Water basin tasking, who does what; and Communications, how to share information. This paper examines each of the three corresponding study phases and shows how a final dispersant use decision process was achieved through incorporating each phase into the Regional Contingency Plan (RCP).
© 1985 with permission from API.

Cormack, D. 1983. The Use of Aircraft for Dispersant Treatment of Oil Slicks at Sea: Report of a Joint UK Government/Esso Petroleum Company Limited Investigation. London: Department of Transportation, Marine Pollution Control Unit. 83p.

Cormack, D. 1977. Oil pollution. Chemistry and Industry (London), 1977:14, 605-608.
Abstract
The problems created by the accidental release of large volumes of crude oil in coastal waters are reviewed, with particular reference to the experience and weaknesses highlighted by the Torrey Canyon disaster in 1967. Dispersion of oil slicks with details of the quantities of materials needed, the time for effective dispersal and the concentrations of oil in water known to exert toxic effects on various marine organisms, and recovery of oil deposited on beaches, as an alternative to dispersal, are described.
© CSA, 1978.

Cormack, D. 1977. How Britain handles oil spills. Petroleum Engineer International, 49:5, 14,16. ISSN:0164-8322.
Abstract
With other methods proving to be impractical or environmentally unsound, Britain became reliant on the use of dispersants for oil spill clearance. The principle of dispersant is explained. The result of work carried out at the Warren Spring Laboratory is the formulation of dispersant spraying equipment which can be fitted to most types of vessels. Dispersants intended for use in Britain have to be tested at Warren Spring and also by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The author also describes other work carried out by Warren Spring in the use of dispersants, e.g. applying dispersant from the air, and determining the impact of dispersant treated oil slicks at sea.
© CSA, 1977.

Cormack, D.; Nichols, J.A. 1977. The concentrations of oil in sea water resulting from a naturally and chemically induced dispersion of oil slicks. In Proceedings of the 1977 Oil Spill Conference, March 8-10, New Orleans, Louisiana. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 381-385.
Abstract
Results are presented on the factors relating to the dissipation of oil spills at sea, including evaporation, emulsion formation, spreading, and natural dispersion into the water column. For Ekofisk oil, 20% evaporates in about 7. 5 hours and, while emulsion formation is as rapid as for Kuwait crude, the resulting viscosity is low and insufficient to allow interference with the natural spreading and dispersion rates. Spreading has two components. One is controlled by surface tension-viscous drag forces and the other is wind-induced. Together they contribute to the two-dimensional dissipation of the oil so that subsequent oil concentrations in the sea are of necessity, low. These concentrations were measured for naturally dispersing and chemically dispersed slicks. The chemically dispersed slicks were of two kinds. One was previously weathered for three hours, the other was of controlled thickness and was dispersed immediately upon being laid. Resulting concentrations of oil in the sea are low and of short duration compared with those required to give observable effects in laboratory toxicity studies. No significant deleterious effects were found to result from the dispersion of oil slicks at sea using low toxicity dispersant chemicals; also it was noted that, in any case, substantial quantities of oil can be expected to enter the sea before oil recovery operations can be mounted.
© 1977 with permission from API.

Cormack, D.; Nichols, J.A. 1978. A system for the application of dispersants to the problems of oil spill clearance. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 236-252. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
This paper describes, by way of introduction only, the UK response capability for oil spill clearance and outlines the reasons for choosing a dispersant approach. The paper then concentrates on the details of the system used to render the dispersant approach operational. The methods of applying dispersants to slicks at sea are described in detail for ships, small vessels, and aircraft. This leads logically to consideration of the oil concentrations in the water column resulting from dispersant use, and data on the topic are presented. Finally, the respective capability of ships and aircraft is presented in terms of oil treatment rate per hour and the whole rounded off by a statement in the amounts of dispersant and equipment held in the UK in support of the national contingency plan, with examples of performance in real spills.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Cormack, D.; Parker, H. 1979. The use of aircraft for the clearance of oil spills at sea. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca., March, 1979. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 469-474.
Abstract
This paper describes experiments conducted with undiluted concentrate dispersants both in the laboratory and at sea which show that oil may be dispersed without the addition or artificial agitation. A description is given of trials over airfields, in which the appropriate droplet size was determined so that virtually all of the liquid discharged from the plane actually reaches the ground/sea surface. Experimental slicks were then laid at sea and the methods are described. These were treated by aircraft using the technique developed over the airfields. Results are presented on fresh crude oil (Kuwait, Ekofisk), topped Kuwait, and topped Kuwait waiter-in-oil emulsion. Experiments and results obtained with a Piper Pawnee and a DC-4 are included. Information is also presented on the logistics of aircraft use in spills offshore and close to shore with a view to giving as precise an evaluation as possible of the overall feasibility of aircraft dispersant operations.
© 1979 with permission from API.

Cormack, D. 1983. Response to Oil and Chemical Marine Pollution. New York: Applied Science Publishers. 531p. ISBN:0853341826.

Cormack, D.; Lynch, B.W.J.; Dowsett, B.D. 1986. Evaluation of dispersant effectiveness. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:2, 87-103. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80001-6.
Abstract
This paper reviews the advantages and disadvantages of methods of dispersant application, and the methods used to improve dispersant use by applying results from the laboratory into the field, observing results, and noting deficiencies or limitations in the operation or performance.

Cormack, D. 1981. The relative effectiveness of current techniques for oil spill clearance. In Petroleum and the Marine Environment: PETROMAR 80. London: Graham & Trotman. pp. 135-147. ISBN:0860102157.
Abstract
The salient features of the problem are identified and related to the strengths and limitations of current response techniques with the aim of assessing the chances of success. It is emphasized that the oil clearance potential of any technique is limited by the rate at which the response unit can encounter the oil to be treated. It is shown how encounter rate limits the current shipborne dispersant treatment rate and how performance can be improved by the use of aircraft. Relative rates of treatment with estimated costs are given for ships and aircraft systems. Oil recovery is then discussed in terms of encounter rate and it is shown that this being shipborne, must in general be less effective in terms of tonnage per hour than aircraft spraying. Waves on the open sea have in the past made oil recovery extremely difficult in any case but new observations now embodied in newly designed systems may allow the wave problem to be substantially overcome. New beach cleaning techniques are briefly described. It is however too soon to say what their cost effectiveness will be but a considerable improvement is anticipated.
© CSA, 1982.

Cormack, D.; Nichols, J.A. (undated). Feasibility and Cost-Effectiveness Study of the Use of a Large Multi-Engined Aircraft for the Application of Oil Dispersant Chemicals at Sea . Stevenge, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory. 5p.

Cormack, D.; Lynch, B.; Smith, J. 1979. Dispersants for Oil Spill Clean Up Operations at Sea, on Coastal Waters and Beaches. Stevenage, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory, Department of Industry. 9p. ISBN:0856241695.

Corner, E.D.S.; Southward, A.J.; Southward, E.C. 1968. Toxicity of oil-spill removers (‘detergents’) to marine life: an assessment using the intertidal barnacle Elminius modestus. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 48:1, 29-47. ISSN:0025-3154.
Abstract
The oil spill romovers BP 1002, Gamlen, Slipclean and Dasic have been tested for toxicity using the barnacle Elminius modestus Darwin. All four substances were more toxic than the laboratory detergent Teepol-L, and Kuwait crude oil. BP 1002 was the most toxic of the oil-spill removers, and Dasic the least, but all were poisonous at concentrations between 2 and 10 ppm. Most of the toxicity of BP 1002 was provided by the ‘Kerosene extract’ (‘Kex’) used as an organic solvent; the solvent ‘Shelsol R’ used in the preparation of Dasic, was also highly toxic. Suspensions of these solvents in sea water soon lose toxicity, however, because of evaporation. The surfactant component of BP 1002, although of lower toxicity (25 ppm) is likely to be more persistent. Low concentrations of BP 1002 (0.5 and 1.0 ppm) inhibit the development of larvae while 3 ppm slows down the swimming activity of cyprids and prevents their settlement. Sensitivity to the poison varies with stage of development; the adults are far more resistant than the nauplii, being killed by 100 ppm of BP 1002, but at 5 and 10 ppm slow down cirral activity. Possible modes of action of the poisons are discussed and conclusions made about their future use.
© Cambridge University Press, 1968.

Cotou, E.; Castritsi-Catharios, I.; Moraitou-Apostolopoulou, M. 2001. Surfactant-based oil dispersant toxicity to developing nauplii of Artemia: effects on ATPase enzymatic system. Chemosphere, 42:8, 959-964. ISSN:0045-6535. DOI:10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00108-9.
Abstract
The paper deals with the toxicity of a surfactant-based oil dispersant to the ATPase activities of two naupliar stages of Artemia (instar I & II). Both instars were exposed to sub-lethal and lethal concentrations derived from acute toxicity data. The chosen concentrations were near to LOECs and NOECs. An eightfold difference indicated between the instars was instar-exposure time dependent. The most prominent effects were the inhibition and the stimulation of Na+/K+-ATPase and Mg2+-ATPase activities, respectively. The cause of these effects was related to the dispersant components, the surfactants. The pattern stimulation/inhibition of Mg2+-ATPase and Na+/K+-ATPase activities could be used to indicate toxic stress by surfactant-based oil dispersants since previous studies with other contaminants have shown different ATPase activity patterns.
Reprinted from Chemosphere, Volume 42, E. Cotou, I. Castritsi-Catharios, M. Moraitou-Apostolopoulou, Copyright 2001, with permission from Elsevier.

Couillard, C.M.; Lee, K.; Légaré, B.; King, T.L. 2005. Effect of dispersant on the composition of the water-accommodated fraction of crude oil and its toxicity to larval marine fish. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 24:6, 1496-1504. ISSN:0730-7268. DOI:10.1897/04-267R.1.
Abstract
WAF and dispersed crude oil WAF were used in experiments to determine dispersant-induced changes in concentrations of PAHs on larval survival, body length, and EROD activity. For this experiment, newly-hatched Fundulus heteroclitus were used, along with the dispersant Corexit 9500, during 96-h static renewal assays. At 0.2 g/L, the dispersant addition created a two- and fivefold increase in the concentrations of total PAHs and high-molecular-weight PAHs. Dispersed crude oil WAF caused higher mortalities in larvae, reduced body length correlation with higher concentrations of high-molecular-weight PAHs, and a linear increase between EROD activity and high-molecular-weight PAHs.

Coull, B.C.; Chandler, G.T. 1992. Pollution and meiofauna: field, laboratory, and mesocosm studies. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 30:191-271. ISSN:0078-3218.

Cowell, E.B. 1971. Some effects of oil pollution in Milford Haven, United Kingdom. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills: June 15-17, 1971. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 429-436.
Abstract
Research on the biological effects of oil pollution and detergent cleaning operations within the port of Milford Haven is described. Observations made on accidental spillages, experimental field spillages and laboratory investigations confirm that both salt marsh communities and rocky shores do normally recover from oil pollution accidents but that shore cleaning with emulsifiers (BP 1002, BP 1100) can do serious damage is misused, although recovery follows. The effects of some new emulsifiers which are up to 1000x less toxic are discussed. Chronic pollution damage from refinery discharges has been identified in both Milford Haven and elsewhere, but it has been shown that these effects are eliminated if the outfall pipes are located offshore in locations of good dispersion and currents. Long term surveys reveal no widespread long term damage to the Fauna and Flora of Milford Haven attributable to the development of the oil port.
© 1971 with permission from API.

Cowell, E.B. 1978. Ecological effects of dispersants in the United Kingdom. In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 277-292. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
The problems associated with the toxicity of dispersants at the time of the Torrey Canyon disaster are described together with subsequent developments to reduce toxicity. The problems of a laboratory bioassay and its limitations in ecological prediction are reviewed in relation to dispersant concentrations that are reached under field use. Problems of the use and ecological effects of dispersants in shore cleaning are described in association with practical aspects of safe application and limitations. The author concludes that modern dispersant formulations can be used with minimum ecological risk provided the application is done with care by trained operators. It is stressed that even the most recently developed materials should not be used on areas of vascular plants such as salt marshes and mangroves. The lack of adequate research precludes recommending dispersants to treat oil spillage in freshwater rivers and lakes unless the bodies of water are extremely large.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Cowell, E.B.; Baker, J.M.; Crapp, G.B. 1972. The biological effects of oil pollution and oil-cleaning materials on littoral communities, including salt marshes. In Ruivo, M. (ed.). Marine Pollution and Sea Life. West Byfleet (Surrey), U.K.: Fishing News Ltd. for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. pp. 359-364. ISBN:0852380216.

Cox, J.C. 1981. Modelling considerations for laboratory testing of dispersant effectiveness. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 16-18, 1981, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 353-371.

Cox, J.C.; Schultz, L.A. 1981. Dispersant effectiveness under Arctic conditions, including ice. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 16-18, 1981, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Research and Development Division, Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 373-399.

Crain, O.L. 1984. A multifaceted approach to applying dispersants. In Allen, T.E. (ed.). Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations. A Symposium Sponsored by ASTM Committee F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response, West Palm Beach, Florida, October 12-13, 1982. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 428-435. ISBN:0803104006.
Abstract
A comprehensive oil spill response plan has been developed partially to deal with accidental discharges of oil into the Arabian Gulf. The spill response capabilities of contractor companies in the area are fairly limited. The response plan relies on chemical agents and recovery as cleanup tools. The key to effective response is a rapid response and deployment of cleanup equipment. Initially, marine vessels equipped with portable dispersant spray booms patterned after the Warren Springs equipment were used. To improve existing oil spill response, an extensive modernization of dispersant deployment equipment has been developed. The areas of modernization include (1) upgrading the marine vessel equipment, (2) dedicating boats and vessels of opportunity for dispersant application, (3) using helicopters for spill response, (4) using large fixed-wing aircraft for spill response, and (5) establishing dispersant and refueling stockpiles. This paper discusses the use of dispersants in response to an oil spill. It is intended not as a scientific paper but as a paper on a local response capability.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Crapp, G.B. 1971. Laboratory experiments with emulsifiers. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 129-149. ISBN:0852930283.

Crapp, G.B. 1971. The biological consequences of emulsifier cleansing. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 150-168. ISBN:0852930283.

Crapp, G.B. 1971. The effects of oil pollution and emulsifier cleansing on littoral animals and plants. In Oil Pollution Research Unit. Annual Report for 1971. Pembroke, Wales, U.K.: Field Studies Council, Orielton Field Centre. pp. 7-13.

Crapp, G.B. 1971. Field experiments with oils and emulsifiers. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities: Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 114-128. ISBN:0852930283.

Crapp, G.B.; Baker, J. 1972. Toxicity tests for predicting the ecological effects of oils and emulsifiers on littoral communities. In Oil Pollution Research Unit. Annual Report for 1972. Pembroke, Wales, U.K.: Field Studies Council, Orielton Field Centre. pp. 35-39.

Crapp, G.B.; Withers, R.G.; Sullivan, C.E. 1971. Investigations on sandy and muddy shores. The Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities. In Cowell, E.B. (ed.). Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the Institute of Petroleum and held at the Zoological Society of London, 30 November - 1 December 1970. London: Institute of Petroleum. pp. 208-216. ISBN:0852930283.
Abstract
This paper describes preliminary investigations into the effects of oil pollution on the fauna and flora of inter-tidal sediments. To date we have done little work in this field, and our conclusions will relate more to future research needs than to our own investigations. The questions relevant to the problem are as follows. (1) What lives in the inter-tidal sediments of Milford Haven? Milford Haven is specified, as this is the area being studied. Without an understanding or the normal beach, we cannot answer questions about an abnormal one. The survey described here has given us some knowledge of the distribution of the larger animals, although we have not studied the very small organisms (the meiofauna and microfauna), but we do not know very much about the way in which their numbers are maintained. (2) What effect will oil and emulsifier pollution have no the fauna and flora of intertidal sediments? With regard to emulsifiers, we know that the application of BP 1002 will cause substantial mortalities amongst many species. Treatment with BP 1100 will cause less damage, although the compound is still toxic. We cannot say how severe the effects of differing amounts of emulsifier cleansing will be. We do not know what effect oil alone will have on these organisms. (3) What ecological changes will follow damage caused by pollution? We cannot answer this question at present. There is considerable need for future research. How urgent is an understanding of these problems in Milford Haven? We cannot give an accurate account of changes which have occurred since the oil industry came to the area. However, we have noted that many people collect animals from sandy and muddy shores, either for eating or for use as bait. We have never heard of any complaints about mass mortalities in areas used for this purpose. On the other hand, oil-tained cockles (as well as fish) have been encountered, and it has also been observed that, following light pollution by oil, or by oil and emulsifier mixtures, polychaete worms used as fishing bait are often flaccid and fragile, if not actually moribund or dead. Research into the effects of oil and emulsifier pollution on the fauna and flora of sandy and muddy shores is not easy, and in the present research most attention has been given to the problems of rocky shores, which are more easily understood. Nevertheless, such research is needed, not least because the populations of inter-tidal sediments are generally of more direct interest to those who visit the seashore.
© CSA, 1973.

Crisafi, E.; Zaccone, R.; Genovese, L.; La Ferla, R.; Maugeri, T.L. 1989. Effect of hydrocarbons and decontaminating substances on bacterial flora of coastal sediments. Marine Ecology, 10:4, 365-375. ISSN:0173-0485.
Abstract
Seventy-six samples of coastal sediments collected in the Straits of Messina were studied in order to evaluate the effects of an oil spill and the consequent "clean-up" operations on heterotrophic aerobic bacteria. In addition, in vitro tests were carried out ot estimate the effects of five dispersants on the growth and oil degrading capacity of marine strains isolated from the same sediments.
© CSA, 1989.

Croquette, J. 1985. The Use of Dispersants at Sea to Control Oil Slicks INFOPOL 1985. Brest, France: Cedre. 15p.

Croquette, J. 1980. Recommandations pour l'Utilisation des Dispersants en Mer en Cas de Marees Noires. Brest, France: Cedre. 15p.

Croquette, J.; Auger, C. 1982. Recommandations pour l'Utilisation des Dispersants dans les Stuaires en Cas de Deversement. Brest, France: Cedre. 15p.

Croquette, J.; Auger, C. 1982. Use of dispersants in an estuary. Bulletin du Cedre, n°9:3-5.
Abstract
The use of oil dispersants in estuaries was studied in terms of the physical, hydrological and biological nature of the estuaries, the physico-chemical fate of the treated hydrocarbons and the environmental consequences of dispersant use. The principal effect is the increased penetration of dispersed hydrocarbons into the sandy sediments. Dispersants also tend to form layers of regrouped particles which are difficult to remove in cleaning operations. Taken in conjunction with the toxicity and other harmful environmental effects, these considerations have resulted in recommendations that dispersants should not be widely used in estuaries, and when they are, careful control and selection of sites should be applied.
© CSA, 1982.

Crosbie, A.; Davies, L.; Lunel, T. 1999. The Scope for Dispersing Heavy Fuel Oils. Oxfordshire, U.K.: AEA Technology. (no page information available).

Cross, W.E. 1987. Effects of oil and chemically treated oil on primary productivity of High Arctic ice algae studied in situ. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 266-276. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
Control data on the ice algal bloom at Cape Hatt, northern Baffin Island, during 18 May-2 June 1982 were typical of those at other arctic locations. Ice algae were dominated by pennate diatoms (80% of total cells), particularly Nitzschia grunowii (55%) and N. frigida (15%). In various locations and sampling periods, cell densities ranged from 1.7-384.7 x107 cells·m-1, and chlorophyll a concentrations ranged from 3.4-16.7 mg·m-2; both increased over the study period. Mean productivity rates based on particulate radiocarbon fixed were from near zero to 2.95 mgCm-2·h-1. Dissolved organic radiocarbon concentrations were almost always higher than particulate radiocarbon concentrations, probably because of cell rupture. Total (dissolved + particulate) productivity rates were up to 12.7 mgCm-2·h-1, with an overall mean of 4.4 mgCm-2·h-1 in control samples. Productivity and productivity per unit chlorophyll increased during May and decreased slightly by 1-2 June. Undisturbed, enclosed areas of the under-ice surface were treated with oil on 23-24 May. Dispersed oil (Venezuela Lagomedio crude + Corexit 9527, BP CTD, or BP 1100 WD) was in contact with the ice for 5 h, whereas untreated oil and solidified oil (BP treatment) remained in the enclosures for the duration of the study (12 days post-treatment). Sampling was carried out in areas where oil contacted the ice and moved away or in areas near oil that remained in contact with the under-ice surface. Five hours after treatment, oil concentrations in the water within the enclosures were similar (0.15-0.28 ppm) in untreated oil, solidified oil and control enclosures. In contrast, dispersed oil concentrations were 5.8-36.5 ppm. No adverse effects of any oil treatment on ice algae were detected in analyses of group composition, cell densities, chlorophyll a concentrations, productivity, productivity/chlorophyll or ratios calculated to standardize for light effects. Untreated and solidified oil may have stimulated ice algal growth and productivity near (but not in) the oiled areas.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Cross, W.E.; Thomson, D.H. 1987. Effects of experimental releases of oil and dispersed oil on arctic nearshore macrobenthos. I. Infauna. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 184-200. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
An experimental subsurface release of chemically dispersed oil at Cape Hatt, northern Baffin Island, resulted in short-term, relatively high oil concentrations in the waters of two adjacent bays, whereas untreated oil released onto the surface of a third bay could not be detected in the water below a depth of 1 m. Diver observations revealed no apparent short-term effects of untreated oil on shallow water infauna, whereas marked acute effects on infauna, including emergence from the substrate and narcosis, were apparent in the dispersed oil bays within 24 h of the release. Analysis of systematic airlift samples at two depths (3 and 7 m) in the three test bays and a fourth (reference) bay during the open water seasons of 1980-83 (two pre-spill and four post-spill sampling periods) showed that most affected animals recovered. Neither type of oil release caused any large-scale mortality of benthic infauna. Multivariate analyses showed no significant change in infaunal community structure, and effects attributable to oil were found in only 3 of 72 univariate analyses of density, biomass or size data for individual taxa. A progressive decrease in the condition of the filter-feeding bivalve Serripes groenlandicus in the reference bay (several km distant from the dispersed oil release) was apparently the result of exposure to dilute dispersed oil for several days. A similar effect on condition in the surface deposit-feeding bivalve Macoma calcarea was apparently caused by relatively low oil concentrations in the sediments of the dispersed and surface oil release bays. There were no apparent effects on recruitment in bivalve species with planktonic larvae, but density changes in the polychaete Spio spp. indicated that oil in the sediments of the surface oil release and dispersed oil release bays affected reproductive processes. Effects on the condition of the bivalves and on Spio spp. were still evident two years post-spill in 1983, the last year of sampling.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Cross, W.E.; Thompson, D.H.; Maltby, A.R. 1983. Macrobenthos-1982 study results. In Baffin Island Oil Spill Project. Working Report Series 1982 Study Results. Edmonton, Alberta: Baffin Oil Spill Project. 135p.

Cross, W.E.; Thompson, D.H.; Martin, C.M.; Fabijan, M.F. 1984. Macrobenthos-1983 study results. In Baffin Island Oil Spill Project. Working Report Series 1983 Study Results. Edmonton, Alberta: Baffin Oil Spill Project. 176p.

Cross, W.E.; Martin, C.M.; Thomson, D.H. 1987. Effects of experimental releases of oil and dispersed oil on Arctic nearshore macrobenthos. II. Epibenthos. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 201-210. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
An experimental subsurface release of chemically dispersed oil at Cape Hatt, northern Baffin Island, resulted in short-term relatively high oil concentrations in the waters of two adjacent bays, whereas untreated oil released onto the surface of a third bay could not be detected in the water below a depth of 1 m. The only immediate response in epibenthos observed by divers was narcosis in urchins and starfish following the dispersed oil release. Analysis of data from in situ counts in the three test bays and in a fourth (reference) bay during the open water seasons of 1980-83 showed that densities of the starfish Leptasterias polaris were not affected by either oil release and that effects on urchin densities were minor or transitory: Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis apparently made immediate and transitory attempts to avoid dispersed oil in the water and possibly tried to avoid untreated and dispersed oil in sediments two years after oiling. Analysis of airlift samples collected at 3 and 7 m depths in the four bays during 1980-83 showed no major effects of either oil release on densities of epibenthic crustaceans; taxa examined included all crustaceans, all cumaceans, one species of cumacean, all amphipods and eight individual amphipod taxa. The overall trend was toward increases in epibenthic crustacean densities over the study period. Effects that may have been attributable to oil were found in only 2 of 22 analyses of density data for individual taxa. In those cases, effects were minor: untreated oil in sediments apparently altered the depth distribution of Anonyx juveniles, and dispersed oil in the water column apparently had a delayed adverse effect on reproduction in the amphipod family Stenothoidae. Densities of Pontoporeia femorata were not affected by oil, but inspection of size-frequency data indicated a possible delayed adverse effect on its reproduction.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Cross, W.E.; Wilce, R.T.; Fabijan, M.F. 1987. Effects of experimental releases of oil and dispersed oil on Arctic nearshore macrobenthos. III. Macroalgae. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 211-219. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
An experimental subsurface release of chemically dispersed oil at Cape Hatt, northern Baffin Island, resulted in short-term relatively high oil concentrations in the water of two adjacent bays. Untreated oil released onto the surface of the third bay could not be detected in the water below a depth of 1 m. Both releases, however, resulted in measurable contamination of sediments in shallow water. Macroalgae at 3 m depth were sampled by a diver-operated airlift sampler in three treatment bays and in a fourth (reference) bay during the open water seasons of 1980-83 (two pre-spill and four post-spill sampling periods). Biomass, number of species and reproductive condition of the dominant understory algae at 3 m depth did not seem to be adversely affected wither by oil in subtidal sediments or by chemically dispersed oil in the water column. No oil effects were detected in data on the biomasses of total algae or of two of the three species analyzed (Stictyosiphon tortilis and Pilayella littoralis). In the third species, Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, growth increased in the year following the oil release, either stimulated by low levels of oil in sediments or through natural annual variability. The lack of major effects on macroalgae may have been partly attributable to the lack of effects on herbivores and the vegetative mode of reproduction in the dominant macroalgal species.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Cross, W.E.; Thompson, D.H. 1982. Macrobenthos-1981 study results. In Baffin Island Oil Spill Project Working Report Series 1981 Study Results. Edmonton, Alberta: Baffin Oil Spill Project. 105p.

Cross, W.E.; Martin, C.M. 1987. Effects of oil and chemically treated oil on nearshore under-ice meiofauna studied in situ. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 258-265. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
Meiofauna collected during May 1982 in the soft bottom layer of nearshore landfast ice at Cape Hatt, northern Baffin Island, were dominated by cyclopoid copepods, harpacticoid copepods, nematodes and polychaete larvae (73.5, 15.4, 6.3 and 3.5% of total numbers respectively). Also included were rotifers, gastropod veligers and calanoid nauplii; calanoid nauplii were probably present in the near-ice water and not on or in the ice. Average abundance of all ice meiofauna was 54,000 individuals·m-2. Densities of all meiofauna groups were spatially variable, but only nematodes and cyclopoid copepods showed evidence of progressive temporal change between 18 May and 2 June. Undisturbed, enclosed areas of the under-ice surface were treated with oil on 23-24 May. Dispersed oil (Venezuela Lagomedio + Corexit 9527, BP CTD or BP 1100 WD) was in contact with the ice for 5 hours, whereas untreated oil and solidified oil (BP treatment) remained in the enclosures for the duration of the study (12 days post-treatment). Sampling was carried out in areas where oil contacted the ice and moved away or in areas near the oil that remained in contact with the under-ice surface. Five hours after treatment, oil concentrations in the water within the enclosures were similar (0.15-0.28 ppm) in untreated oil, solidified oil and control enclosures. In contrast, dispersed oil concentrations were 5.8-36.5 ppm. Densities of all copepods and polychaetes decreased dramatically in each dispersed oil enclosure by the second post-spill day, and slight density increases were evident by the tenth post-spill day. Harpacticoid copepods apparently were more sensitive to dispersed oil than were cyclopoid copepods. Densities of nematodes and cyclopoid copepod nauplii were not affected by dispersed oil. Densities of nematodes, polychaetes, and all copepods were not affected by untreated or solidified oil, but there was some evidence of a stimulatory effect of those treatments on some copepod groups and life stages.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Croswell, W.F.; Fedors, J.C.; Hoge, F.E.; Swift, R.N.; Johnson, J.C. 1983. Ocean experiments and remotely sensed images of chemically dispersed oil spills. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 21:1, 2-15. ISSN:0196-2892.
Abstract
A series of experiments was performed at sea where the effectiveness of dispersants applied from a helicopter was tested on fresh and weathered crude oils released from a surface research vessel. In conjunction with these experiments, remote sensing measurements using an array of airborne optical and microwave sensors were performed in order to aid in the interpretation of the dispersant effectiveness and to obtain quantitative images of oil on the sea under controlled conditions. Surface oil thickness and volume are inferred from airborne measurements using a dual-channel microwave imaging radiometer, aerial color photography, and an airborne oceanographic lidar. The remotely sensed measurements are compared with point sampled data obtained using a research vessel.
© CSA, 1983.

Crothers, J.H. 1983. Field experiments on the effects of crude oil and dispersant on the common animals and plants of rocky sea shores (limpets, winkles). Marine Environmental Research, 8:4, 215-239. ISSN:0141-1136. DOI:10.1016/0141-1136(83)90033-8.
Abstract
In experiments on the Somerset coast, Forties crude oil and BP 1100WD dispersant were sprayed on to small areas of the rocky shore over a period of several days to stimulate conditions following an oil spill. Detailed observations were made at monthly intervals of marked 0.1 m2 quadrants within (and without) the treated areas. Some areas received oil only, others dispersant only, and the third set received oil followed by dispersant. The experiments were in two parts, the one to simulate a July incident and the other a January incident. Limpets and the small winkles living in and between empty barnacle shells were the most obviously affected organisms. The sites that received both oil and dispersant were most seriously upset, but the oil areas came next. The effect of BP 1100WD on its own as applied in this experiment was relatively slight.
Reprinted from Marine Environmental Research, Volume 8, J.H. Crothers, Copyright 1983, with permission from Elsevier.

Crowell, M.J.; Lane, P.A. 1988. The Effects of Crude Oil and the Dispersant Corexit 9527 on the Vegetation of a Nova Scotian Saltmarsh: Impacts After Two Growing Seasons. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 51p.

Crowell, M.J.; Lane, P.A. 1988. Recovery of a Nova Scotian saltmarsh during two growing seasons following experimental spills of crude oil and the dispersant Corexit 9527. In Proceedings: Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988, Sheraton Landmark Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 89-127. ISBN:0662559282.

Crowley, S. 1984. An assessment of Mackay apparatus for testing oilspill dispersants. Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, 2:1, 47-56. ISSN:0143-7127. DOI:10.1016/S0143-7127(84)90717-8.
Abstract
The successful use of chemical dispersants for treating oilspills requires advance information of product effectiveness, such information being necessary for stock piling in contingency planning. Many existing quality tests are unrepresentative of the conditions at sea. Here, a new method of testing oilspill dispersants is described and compared with a standard Warren Spring Laboratory test for effectiveness. Results show that, although similar in its ability to rank dispersants, the Mackay test could also prove useful for observational work on dispersant/oil/water mixtures and control of mousse formation.
Reprinted from Oil and Petrochemical Pollution, Volume 2, S. Crowley, Copyright 1984, with permission from Elsevier.

Crowley, S. 1984. Shipboard Spraying Equipment for Undiluted Dispersant Concentrates. Stevenage, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory. 13p. ISBN:0856243469.

Crowley, S.; Nightingale, J. 1983. Evaluation of Oil Spill Dispersant Concentrates for Beach Cleaning. Stevenage, U.K.: Warren Spring Laboratory. 16p. ISBN:0856243175.

Culbertson, T.L.; Scott, A.L. 1968. Chemical Treatment of Oil Spilled on Harbor Waters. Port Hueneme, Ca.: Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory. 12p.

Cullinane, J.P.; McCarthy, P.; Fletcher, A. 1975. The effect of oil pollution in Bantry Bay. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 6:11, 173-176. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(75)90285-4.
Abstract
The biological damage caused by the large oil spill in Bantry Bay and the clean-up measures adopted to deal with it (already reported in the Marine Pollution Bulletin) has been followed up in the months following the oil spill. This report refers to damage to algae and lichens.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 5, J.P. Culliane, P. McCarthy, A. Fletcher, Copyright 1975, with permission from Elsevier.

Cunningham, J.; Kooyoomjian, K.J.; Rojo, M.; Jordan, J.M. 1989. Decision-making on the use of dispersants: the role of the states. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 353-356.
Abstract
According to the authorization-of-use procedures outlined in the National Contingency Plan (NCP), a state with jurisdiction over navigable waters polluted by an oil spill must concur with the decision to apply dispersants or other chemical oil spill control agents. To be effective, a dispersant must be applied quickly, but reaching consensus among the necessary parties can be slow unless all the participants are well prepared at the outset. Ideally, consideration of dispersant use should take place prior to an emergency in order to reach a timely decision. Several states and Regional Response Teams have active programs that are addressing dispersant use planning and technical and environmental considerations. In several states where the use of dispersants is an emerging issue, there appears to be a willingness to consider their use on a case-by-case basis and a genuine interest in learning more about their effectiveness and toxicity.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Cunningham, J.M.; Sahatjian, K.A.; Meyers, C.; Yoshioka, G.; Jordan, J.M. 1991. Use of dispersants in the United States: perception or reality? In Proceedings: 1991 International Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), March 4-7, 1991, San Diego, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 389-394.
Abstract
Dispersants have been a controversial oil spill response technique since their introduction during the Torrey Canyon oil spill off the coast of the Untied Kingdom in 1967. Despite reductions in the toxicity of dispersants and improvements in their application since then dispersants have not been used extensively in the United States because of logistical difficulties, unfavorable weather conditions, and a lack of demonstrated effectiveness during actual spill conditions. In addition, there is a widely held perception in the Untied States that dispersant use has been limited by complex authorization procedures. This paper reviews the dispersant policies of several European nations and Canada and compares them with those of the United States. Recent developments in U.S. dispersant policy are outlined, particularly those designed to expedite decision making. This paper concludes by examining some recent U.S. oil spills in which dispersant use was considered.
© 1991 with permission from API.

Curran, P.M.T.; Gillespie, D.K.; O'Muircheartaigh, I.G. 1997. The effects of oil spill dispersants on conidial germination and ultrastructure in the marine fungus Zalerion maritimum. Botanica Marina, 40:4, 359-367. ISSN:0006-8055.
Abstract
Percentage conidial germination and germ-tube length in the marine fungus Zalerion maritimum decreased significantly as the concentration of oil spill dispersant (Corexit 9527, Enersperse 1583 and Slickgone LTS) increased from 0-100/1000 ppm. Preliminary investigations using transmission electron microscopy reveal new evidence of ultrastructural damage in conidial cells caused by Corexit 9527.
© CSA, 1997.

D.F. Dickins Associates. 1988. Evaluation of Hovercraft for Dispersant Application. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Studies Research Funds. 57p. ISBN:0920783945. URL

D.F. Dickins Associates, Ltd. 2004. Advancing Oil Spill Response in Ice-Covered Waters. Cordova, Ak.: Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute. 17p. URL

Dale, T. 1988. Oil pollution and plankton dynamics. V. Controlled ecosystem experiments in Lindaspollene, Norway, June 1980: effects of oil, oil/nutrients, and oil/dispersant on microplankton. Sarsia, 73:3, 169-178. ISSN:0036-4827.
Abstract
Maine microplankton was observed for responses to oil and oil/dispersant mixtures in enclosed environments (water columns 20 m long, 0.78 sq m surface). Compared to effects from oil exposure, addition of an oil/Corexit 9527 mixture caused a more rapid depopulation of ciliations of the oil-derived material. However, dispersed oil appeared less harmful to the ciliates and the dinophysids than oil alone. Myrionecta rubra appeared to be less sensitive to dispersed oil than the heterotrophic ciliates. As the heterotrophic ciliates never reappeared at 0.5 m in either the oil bag or the oil/dispersant bag but reappeared at the end of the experiment in the oil/nutrient bag, the authors assume that the nutrients negated the effects from the oil.

Daling, P.S. 1988. A study of the chemical dispersability of fresh and weathered crude oils. In Proceedings: Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988, Sheraton Landmark Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 481-499. ISBN:0662559282.

Daling, P.S.; Halmoe, G. 1989. Review of Research Studies on Oil Spill Dispersants Performed in Scandinavia. Trondheim, Norway: Institutt for Kontinentalsokkelundersøkelser. 70p.
Abstract
This report reviews 60 research papers focusing on dispersant use in Scandinavian countries over a 10-year period. Some of the topics covered in the review include: attitudes towards dispersants, national regulations on dispersant use, research programs focusing on dispersants, review of current projects, and recommendations for further study.

Daling, P.S.; Lichtenthaler, R.G. 1987. Chemical dispersion of oil. Comparison of the effectiveness results obtained in laboratory and small-scale field tests. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 3:1, 19-35. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80011-9.
Abstract
Field tests are of major importance for dispersant product evaluation in addition to laboratory effectiveness studies. To investigate the correlation between laboratory and large scale field tests, two series of small scale sea trials were initiated by the Norwegian Oil Pollution Control Research and Development Programme. The field tests comprised the application of sea water diluted dispersants as well as neat application from a boat. A total of six dispersants were tested on four oil types. An attempt was made to correlate the field test results with three laboratory test methods. Results showed that there is poor correlation between effectiveness results obtained from three different laboratory test systems, and between results from field and laboratory tests. There was, however, a fairly good correlation between the mean results from the three laboratory tests and the field tests. Efforts should be made to improve the simulation of field conditions in laboratory procedures before it is possible to make a valid mathematical model which is able to predict dispersion effectiveness under given conditions. Furthermore, the methodology and reproducibility of field tests of dispersant effectiveness should be improved.
Reprinted from Oil and Chemical Pollution, Volume 3, P.S. Daling, R.G. Lichtenthaler, Copyright 1987, with permission from Elsevier.

Daling, P.S.; Lichtenthaler, R.G. 1985. Seminar on the Effectiveness of Oil Spill Dispersants. Oslo: Program for Oljevernberedskap. 29p. ISBN:8272241277.

Daling, P.S. 1986. Laboratory effectiveness testing of oil spill dispersants - correlation studies between two test methods. In Sørstrøm, S.E. (ed.). International Seminar on Chemical and Natural Dispersion of Oil on Sea, 10-11-12 November 1986 at Muellerhotel, Heimdal: Proceedings. Trondheim, Norway: Oceanic Center SINTEF. 14p.

Daling, P.S. 1988. A study of the chemical dispersibiltiy of fresh and weathered crude oils. In Proceedings: Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988, Sheraton Landmark Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 481-499. ISBN:0662559282.

Daling, P.S.; Singsaas, I.; Reed, M.; Hansen, O. 2002. Experiences in dispersant treatment of experimental oil spills. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 7:5-6, 201-213. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00061-0.
Abstract
In Norway, mechanical recovery has traditionally been the preferred oil spill response technique for the past decades. More recently, the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT) has opened the door to the consideration of dispersant use in certain oil spill situations. The responsibility for planning and decision for use/non-use of dispersants lies with the oil industry/enterprise itself; their decisions are subject to review and approval by SFT. This is in accordance with the "Principle of Internal Control" on what the Authorities focuses their regulations. The new regulations for use of dispersants in Norway requires well-documented contingency plans for refineries, oil terminals and offshore installations. This change in the attitude to the use of dispersants in Norway is a result of the recent years progress in scientific documentation of dispersant use. Previous paper (Spill Science & Technology Bulletin 5(1) 1999 63) gives an overview of the methodologies developed for oil weathering and dispersibility studies in the laboratory forming the basis for the development of the SINTEF Oil Weathering Model, which has been extensively validated in the field. This paper gives a summary of the main findings from recent years dispersant field trials in the North Sea. This work forms a basis for building up an operational and effective dispersant response for specific Norwegian coastal and offshore locations/regions. Data generated from the experimental field trials have been invaluable for validation and development of numerical models for fate and response assessment of oil spills. Examples in using the quantitative model tool "Oil Spill Contingency and Response" (OSCAR) in contingency planning and Net Environmental Benefit Analyses (NEBA) of oil spill scenarios are given.
Reprinted from Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, Volume 7, P.S. Daling, I. Singsaas, M. Reed, O. Hansen, Copyright 2002, with permission from Elsevier.

Daling, P.S.; Mackay D.; Mackay N.; Brandvik P.J. 1990. Droplet size distributions in chemical dispersion of oil spills: towards a mathematical model. Oil and Chemical Pollution , 7:3, 173-198. ISSN:0269-8579. DOI:10.1016/S0269-8579(05)80026-7.
Abstract
The results of a series of chemical dispersion tests are presented, in which three crude oils (Gullfaks, Statfjord and Arabian heavy), each at 4 states of weathering, have been dispersed at 13°C with two dispersants (Finasol OSR-5 and OSR-12) using three laboratory tests (Warren Spring Rotating Flask WSL test, Institute Francais du Petrole flow test -IFP test and Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman - MNS test). Effectiveness and dispersed oil droplet size distributions in the different test methods have been studied and an attempt has been made to develop correlation or mathematical models of the chemical dispersion phenomena. This mathematical treatment helps to explain the reasons that the tests give different results, but it is concluded that, at present, our understanding of the basic dispersion phenomena is not sufficient to form a basis for a reliable model. Several modelling approaches are discussed in the hope that as further data and insights become available, reliable models may be developed to describe this complex process.
Reprinted from Oil and Chemical Pollution, Volume 7, P.S. Daling, D. Mackay, N. Mackay, P.J. Brandvik, Copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.

Daling, P.S.; Brandvik, P.J. 1992. Tools for assessing the weathering processes of oil spills at sea and the effectiveness of oil spill dispersants. In Proceedings of the CONCAWE/DGMK Scientific Seminar "Remediation of Oil Spills" on May 18-21, 1992 in Hamburg/Germany. Hamburg: DGMK, Deutsche Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft für Erdöl, Erdgas und Kohle e.V. pp. 103-116. ISBN:3928164317.

Daling, P.S.; Brandvik, P.J.; Singsaas, I. 1995. Weathering of oil and use of dispersants: methods for assessing oils’ properties at sea and the feasibility of oil spill dispersants. In NOSCA Seminar on Oil Pollution Control, Malta 31 January - 1 February, 1995. (no publishing information available). 7p.

Daling, P.S.; Indrebø, G. 1996. Recent improvements in optimizing use of dispersants as a cost-effective oil spill countermeasure technique. In Proceedings: The Third International Conference on Health, Safety & Environment in Oil & Gas Exploration & Production: 9-12 June, 1996 New Orleans, LA. Richardson, Tx.: Society of Petroleum Engineers. Volume 2:pp. 899-913.
Abstract
During the four-year research program ESCOST ('ESSO-SINTEF Coastal Oil Spill Treatment Program'), significant improvements have been made in oil spill combat methods and in tools for use in contingency planning and decision-making during oil spill operations. This paper presents an overview of the main findings obtained with respect to oil weathering and oil spill dispersant treatment during this research program, including: new methodology for systematic investigations of the weathering properties of oils at sea; development of high performance dispersant formulations for weathered and emulsified oils; improvements in dispersant application techniques and applications procedures/strategies; and development of dynamic oil spill simulation model tools for use in designing more optimal and cost-effective oil spill contingency solutions.
© CSA, 1996.

Daling, P.S.; Brandvik, P.J.; Reed, M. 1998. Dispersant experience in Norway: dispersant effectiveness, monitoring, and fate of dispersed oil. In Dispersant Application in Alaska: A Technical Update, Anchorage Hilton Hotel, Anchorage, Alaska, March 18 and 19, 1998. Cordova, Ak.: Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recovery Institute. pp. 111-146.

Daling, P.S. 1998. Performance Testing of Corexit 9500 on Oils Weathered in Laboratory and in Experimental Field Trials. Trondheim, Norway: SINTEF. 80p.

Dalla Venezia, L.; Fossato, V.U. 1977. Characteristics of suspensions of Kuwait oil and Corexit 7664 and their short- and long-term effects on Tisbe bulbisetosa (Copepoda: Harpacticoida). Marine Biology, 42:3, 233-237. ISSN:0025-3162. DOI:10.1007/BF00397747.
Abstract
GC and spectrofluorometric methods were used to determine the stability of suspensions of oil and dispersant in seawater over a period of days. Suspensions were found to be effectively stable from days 3 to 15. Adult female Tisbe bulbisetosa were found to tolerate the suspensions in short-term exposures, even though pollutant concentrations were roughly 200 times higher in bioassays than in areas from where the organisms were collected. Results of long-term effects on egg production, number of nauplii, hatching success for third and fourth generations continually exposed to suspensions, were not found to be different from controls.

Dalmazzone, C.; Bocard, C.; Ballerini, D. 1995. IFP methodology for developing water-in-crude oil emulsion inhibitors. Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, 2:2-3, 143-150. ISSN:1353-2561. DOI:10.1016/S1353-2561(96)00013-8.
Abstract
Emulsion inhibitors can be used to inhibit the emulsification process or to break already formed water-in-oil emulsions after an oil spill. Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP) has developed a methodology based on simple laboratory tests. It involves the assessment of inhibitors performances by the rotating flasks method, the characterization of the potential leaching from the oil to the water phase and the evaluation of the dispersant effectiveness by the IFP dilution test.
Reprinted from Spill Science and Technology Bulletin, Volume 2, C. Dalmazzone, C. Bocard, D. Ballerini, Copyright 1995, with permission from Elsevier.

Dalmazzone, C.; Bocard, C.; Ballerini, D. 1995. IFP procedure for testing and developing water-in-crude oil emulsion inhibitors. In Proceedings, Eighteenth Arctic Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, June 14-16, 1995, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 317-327.

Daly, E.J.; Hoddinott, J.; Dale, M.R.T. 1988. The effects of oil spill chemicals on carbon translocation rates in Phaseolus vulgaris L. Environmental Pollution, 52:2, 151-163. ISSN:0269-7491. DOI:10.1016/0269-7491(88)90087-5.
Abstract
Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Black Valentine when sprayed with Corexit dispersants shows a rapid inhibition of photosynthesis. The plant retains the ability to translocate fixed carbon, and this involves mobilising previously fixed carbon in the sprayed leaf or the repartitioning of carbon from unsprayed regions of the plant towards the growing sink regions. The ability to maintain carbon translocation while photosynthesis is declining maximises the regrowth potential of the plant.
Reprinted from Environmental Pollution, Volume 52, E.J. Daly, J. Hoddinott, M.R.T. Dale, Copyright 1988, with permission from Elsevier.

Dames & Moore. 1991. Ecological Effects of BP1100X Shoreline Treatment on Knight Island, Prince William Sound, Alaska: Final Report. Portland, Or.: Dames & Moore. 36 leaves.

Danenberger, E.P. 1991. Oil-spill contingency planning for OCS operations. In Magoon, O.T. (ed.). Coastal Zone '91: Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, Long Beach, California, July 8-12, 1991. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers. Volume 1. pp. 472-484. ISBN:0872628094.

Daniels, C.B. 1996. Toxicology research: an update on EPA methods for the evaluation of oil spill dispersants. In Proffitt, C.E; Roscigno, P.F. (eds.). Proceedings: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Oil Spills in Coastal Ecosystems: Assessing Effects, Natural Recovery, and Progress in Remediation Research, New Orleans, July 14-15, 1994. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. pp. 130-135.
Abstract
Change is the hallmark of progress. In science, progress, i.e., change, is typically denoted by the advance of technology. The evolution of each new technology encourages the stabilization and in some instances the demise of other related technologies. Development of bioremediation as a technology for oil spill abatement is a clear example of waning interest in one technology, chemical dispersants, and the advancement of another. Oil spill research at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has followed a similar trend of expansion and stabilization with funding of dispersant research declining in recent years. The nutrient enrichment studies conducted in Alaska subsequent to the grounding of the EXXON Valdez was the most significant, single event to spur the advancement of the technology known as bioremediation. Since that time, research on bioremediation agents has moved forward, while research on oil spill dispersants has plateaued within both the Federal and private sectors. Although bioremediation remains as the primary focus of EPA's research program in oil spill pollution, studies have been conducted to enhance our knowledge of dispersants and to minimize potential hazards associated with their use. Within the Agency (EPA), the current research effort on dispersants is focused primarily in three areas: (1) spill response and contingency planning; (2) re-evaluation of regulatory test methods for efficacy and toxicity; and (3) risk estimation. This discussion will highlight toxicological research on dispersants as it relates to the latter two categories, regulatory test methods and risk estimation.

Davenport, J. 1973. A comparison of the effects of oil, BP1100 and oleophilic fluff upon the porcelain crab Porcellana platycheles. Chemosphere, 2:1, 3-6. ISSN:0045-6535. DOI:10.1016/0045-6535(73)90023-4.
Abstract
In anticipation of an oleophilic 'fluff' based on a mixture of fabric and rubber being used to treat marine oil spills, experiments were conducted with various concentrations of the 'fluff' in comparison with seawater solutions of the detergent BP 1100 and oil suspensions. The effects of oil treatment by both methods were also investigated. The 'fluff' appears to be relatively innocuous, and is not more toxic than BP 1100 at the same concentration. At high concentration it is less toxic than BP 1100. 'Fluff'/seawater mixtures caused death by mechanical effects, blocking nephropores or branchial chambers and this was potentiated by the oil making the 'fluff' sticky. On seashores, 'fluff' is unlikely to penetrate burrows and so would not exert this effect.
Reprinted from Chemosphere, Volume 2, J. Davenport, Copyright 1973, with permission from Elsevier.

Davies, L.; Lewis, A.; Lunel, T.; Crosbie, A. 1998. Dispersion of Emulsified Oils at Sea: Laboratory Study. Oxfordshire, U.K.: National Environmental Technology Centre. 32p.

Davies, L.; Daniel, F.; Swannell, R.; Braddock, J. 2001. Biodegradability of Chemically-Dispersed Oil. Oxfordshire, U.K.: AEA Technology Environment. 49p. URL

De Flora, S. et al. 1985. Genotoxicity assay of oil dispersants in bacteria (mutation, differential lethality, SOS DNA-repair) and yeast (mitotic crossing-over). Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology, 158:1-2, 19-30. ISSN:0027-5107. DOI:10.1016/0165-1218(85)90093-X.
Abstract
5 oil dispersants and a sample of paraffin were devoid of mutagenic activity in the Ames reversion test, with and without S9 mix, using 7 his- S. typhimurium strains (TA1535, TA1537, TA1538, TA97, TA98, TA100, TA102). However, 3 dispersants produced direct DNA damage in E. coli WP2, which was nonrepairable in repair-deficient strains (WP2uvrA, CM871, TM1080), as shown by two different DNA-repair test procedures. The uvrA excision-repair system was in all cases the most important mechanism involved in repairing the DNA damage produced by oil dispersants, while the combination of uvrA with other genetic defects (polA, recA, lexA) decreased the efficiency of the system. The observed genotoxic effects were considerably lowered in the presence of S9 mix containing liver S9 fractions from Aroclortreated rats. The sample of oil dispersant yielding the most pronounced DNA damage in repair-deficient E. coli failed to induce gene sfiA in E. coli (strain PQ37), using the SOS chromotest, or mitotic crossing-over in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (strain D5). The direct toxicity of the oil dispersant to both bacterial and yeast cells was markedly decreased in the presence of rat-liver preparations. These two short-term tests were effective in detecting the genotoxicity of both direct-acting compounds (such as 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide and methyl methanesulfonate) and procarcinogens (such as cyclophosphamide, 2-aminoanthracene and 2-aminofluorene). Moreover, the SOS chromotest was successfully applied to discriminate the activity of chromium compounds as related to their valence (i.e. Cr(VI) genotoxic and Cr(III) inactive). Combination of oil dispersants with Cr(VI) compounds did not affect the direct mutagenicity to S. typhimurium (TA102) of a soluble salt (sodium dichromate) nor did it result in any release of a water-soluble salt (lead chromate), as also confirmed by analytical methods. On the other hand, exposure to sunlight tended to decrease, to a slow rate, the direct genotoxicity of an oil dispersant in the bacterial DNA-repair test.
Reprinted from Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology, Volume 158, S. De Flora, G.P. De Renzi, A. Camoirano, M. Astengo, C. Basso, P. Zanacchi, C. Bennicelli, Copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevier.

DeCola, E. 2003. Dispersant Use in Oil Spill Response: A Worldwide Legislative and Practical Update . New York: Aspen Law and Business. 314p. ISBN:0735535574.

DeCola, E.G. 1999. Dispersed Oil Toxicity Issues: Final Report. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council. 26p.

Dekker, R.; van Moorsel, G.W.N.M. 1987. Effects of different oil doses, dispersant and dispersed oil on macrofauna in model tidal flat ecosystems. In Kuiper, J.; Van den Brink, W. J. (eds.). Fate and Effects of Oil in Marine Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Conference on Oil Pollution. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 117-131. ISBN:9024734894.
Abstract
Artificial intertidal mudflats were used to study effects of "Forties" oil, a dispersant and dispersed oil. Oil was added in a 0.5 and a 0.1 mm layer. In the latter treatment, 2 exposure times were used. The effects on the development of stocked macrobenthic infauna species are presented. As the experiments lasted 10 months, both short- and long-term effects and interactions could be investigated.
© CSA, 1987.

DeLaune, R.D.; Smith, C.J.; Partrick, Jr., W.H. 1984. Effect of oil on salt marsh biota: methods for restoration. Environmental Pollution Series A: Ecological and Biological, 36:3, 207-227. ISSN:0143-1471. DOI:10.1016/0143-1471(84)90003-5.
Abstract
South Louisiana crude was applied to replicated plots in a Louisiana Spartina alterniflora salt marsh. Various marsh restoration methods were evaluated for mitigating the impact of crude oil on the marsh biota. Oiling the marsh caused no reduction in macrophyte production as compared with the non-oiled plots. Thus the cleanup treatment showed no beneficial effects to S. alterniflora. Likewise, there was no oil-induced mortality for the marsh macrofauna or meiofauna. In Louisiana Gulf Coast salt marshes, which have a low sensitivity to oil as shown in this study, the best response is no cleanup action at all.
Reprinted from Environmental Pollution Series A: Ecological and Biological, Volume 36, R.D. DeLaune, C.J. Smith, W.H. Partrick, Jr., Copyright 1984, with permission from Elsevier.

Delft Hydraulics Laboratory. 1984. A Series of Flume Experiments on the Natural and Chemical Dispersion of Oil. Delft, The Netherlands: Delft Hydraulics Laboratory. 72p.

Delvigne, G.A.L. 1983. Sea Measurements on Natural and Chemical Dispersion of Oil. Delft, The Netherlands: Delft Hydraulics Laboratory. (no page information available).

Delvigne, G.A.L. 1985. Experiments on natural and chemical dispersion of oil in laboratory and field circumstances. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles. Washington, D.C.: California. American Petroleum Institute. pp. 507-514.
Abstract
At the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory a laboratory flume has been constructed to aid research into natural and chemically induced dispersion processes as well as to test the effectiveness of dispersant in specific conditions. The flume allows the selection of variables and conditions, for instance, the generation of nonbreaking and breaking waves and currents, the variation of temperature, salinity, oil layer thickness, dispersant spray droplet size, and the droplet impact on the slick surface. The flume has been verified with empirical data gathered from an extensive sea survey on the natural and chemical dispersion of a number of oil slicks. The field experiments on natural dispersion can be modeled satisfactorily in the flume with respect to the formation of oil droplets from the oil slick and the initial intrusion in the water column. The further mixing of oil droplets in the water mass are to be calculated from diffusion theories and other transport processes. Field experiments on the natural and chemical dispersion of 10 artificial oil spills in the North Sea led to the remarkable conclusion that spraying an oil slick with chemical dispersant did not enhance the (natural) dispersion process, while a premixed dispersant in oil was very effective. The ineffectiveness of sprayed dispersant could not be explained from a limited series of experiments performed in the laboratory flume on the effects of evaporation, photo-oxidation, emulsification, and layer thickness on natural and chemical dispersion.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Delvigne, G.A.L. 1987. Droplet size distribution of naturally dispersed oil. In Kuiper, J.; Van den Brink, W. J. (eds.). Fate and Effects of Oil in Marine Ecosystems: Proceedings of the Conference on Oil Pollution. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 29-40. ISBN:9024734894.
Abstract
The mechanical action of breaking waves and turbulence cause oil to break up into small droplets and diffuse in the water column. The droplet size is important in view of the dispersion stability, the interaction with marine life, and the uptake by sediment. Laboratory measurements were performed on the droplet size distribution in various conditions. The droplet size distributions observed were strongly dependent on the turbulence energy level and on the duration of the turbulent state. Other distinct parameters were the oil type, weathering state and temperature, all being reflected in the single parameter of viscosity. The droplet size was independent of the salinity of the water, and the oil concentration. The droplet size distribution was similar for droplets generated from submerged oil lumps and those generated from a surface layer.
© CSA, 1987.

Delvigne, G.A.L. 1989. A sampler for the collection of dispersed oil droplets. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 567.

Delvigne, G.A.L. 1989. Measurements on natural dispersion. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp.194-206. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
In the case of an oil spill, knowledge is needed of the natural dispersion behavior of the oil in the particular situation for decision making on the application of chemical dispersants. Small-scale and full-scale laboratory measurements were performed on the natural dispersion rate Q, droplet size distribution do(f), and intrusion depth zi, for a surface oil slick broken up by breaking waves and the breakup of submerged oil (submerged spill) in a turbulent ambience. Empirical relations were derived for Q, do(f), and zi as a function of oil type, weathering state, oil layer thickness, breaking wave energy, temperature, and water salinity.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Delvigne, G.A.L.; Hulsen, L.J.M. 1994. Simplified laboratory measurement of oil dispersion coefficient - application in computations of natural oil dispersion. In Proceedings: Seventeenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 8-10, 1994, Coast Plaza Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Technology Development Branch. pp. 173-187. ISBN:0662559282.

Depledge, M.H. 1984. Changes in cardiac activity, oxygen uptake and perfusion indices in Carcinus maenas (L.) exposed to crude oil and dispersant. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology, 78:2, 461-466. ISSN:0306-4492. DOI:10.1016/0742-8413(84)90114-2.
Abstract
1. Cardiac activity and oxygen consumption increased when C. maenas were exposed to a 20% solution of the water-soluble fraction of Fortes crude oil, a 10% solution of the dispersant BP1100WD or a combination of both. 2. Normal feeding behaviour was disrupted. 3. Perfusion indices (Q/Vo2) decreased as locomotor activity increased following exposure to crude oil. However, exposure to dispersant or dispersant + crude oil resulted in elevation of perfusion index despite crabs becoming active. 4. All test animals survived for at least 6 weeks following exposure to the pollutants. 5. The acute, sublethal effects of dispersant and dispersant + crude oil were more severe than the effects of crude oil alone.
Reprinted from Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology, Volume 78, M.H. Depledge, Copyright 1984, with permission from Elsevier.

Deshimaru, O. 1971. Studies on the pollution of fish meat by mineral oils. II. Injury and pollution brought forth on fish by oil dispersers. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 37:4, 302-306. ISSN:0021-5392.
Abstract
Several kinds of oil dispersers have been used in time of emergency, and also when a tanker has to throw the loaded oil into the sea. This practice, however, may be harmful to fish living in the waters, and the pollution on fish meat caused by the oil and dispersers have also become of great concern. From this viewpoint the author tested 4 kinds of commercial dispersers with carp, Cyprinus carpio. 2 of them were highly toxic for the fish; at a level less than 20 ppm half of the fish died after 48 hr, the other 2 were relatively non-toxic and 600 ppm showed the same effect as in the above condition. Dispersers containing mineral oils in their ingredients showed an oily polluted smell on the fish meat. Analyzing the polluted meat gas chromatographically, the chromatogram interpreted well the causal dispersers which were olfactory not easily distinguishable from one another.
© CSA, 1971.

Deshpande, N.; Chandrasekar, S.; Sorial, G.A.; Weaver, J.W. 2005. Dispersant effectiveness on oil spills - impact of environmental factors. In International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Theme Session on Oil Spills in Marine Ecosystems: Impacts and Remediation. C.M. 2005/S:30, 10p. URL

Desmarquest, J.P.; Croquette, J.; Merlin, F.; Bocard, C.; Gatellier, C. 1983. Field test and assessment of oil dispersant efficiency. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 574.
Abstract
Laboratory tests for the assessment of oil spill dispersant efficiency cannot exactly simulate the natural conditions existing at the marine air-water interface. On the other hand, large scale trials in the open sea are so complex and expensive that they can hardly be considered as a routine method to evaluate dispersant efficiency at sea. In this paper we describe the procedure of a middle-scale field test to be run in the open and sheltered waters of harbors or roadsteads. Three boats heading into the wind and sailing on line at a constant speed are used for successively: spreading the oil on the surface of the water; overspraying this immediately with the test dispersant; and continuously sampling the water at three different depths for hydrocarbon measurements. The spray boat is equipped to discharge dispersant ranging from highly diluted to neat concentrates by means of a volumetric pump and one boom with four spray nozzles mounted near the bow. Agitation of the oil-dispersant mixture is made by a net of floating plastic chains towed astern. The sampling system consists of a small catamaran rigged ahead of the bow of the analysis vessel. The samples, continuously collected from 0.4, 0.7, and 1.0 m depths, are monitored by one line turbidimetry for the first two levels and UV fluorometry for the deepest one. Fractions of the sampling flows are recovered to check the analyzers and to measure separately the hydrocarbons and surfactant contents. In the first series of tests, the parameters investigated were: oil viscosity in the range of 50 cs (a reconstituted topped crude oil) to 2,000 cs at 20° C; dispersant type, including conventional and concentrates; dispersant concentration, from 10 percent aqueous to undiluted concentrate. In addition, the performances of various commercial dispersants could be compared under similar conditions. Three main conclusions were drawn from this work. 1) The viscosity limitation falls at about 1,500 cs with the oils investigated. 2) Concentrate dispersants applied undiluted are more efficient than when pre-diluted with water, but the distribution of the dispersant upon the slick is more subject to wind and sea-state. 3) Concentrate dispersants seem to work better than conventional ones, even on the more viscous oils.
© 1983 with permission from API.

Desmarquest, J.P. et al. 1985. Recent advances in dispersant effectiveness evaluation: experimental and field aspects. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 445-452.
Abstract
Although dispersants are used in different countries, it appeared from recent international meetings that more knowledge concerning dispersant effectiveness is still needed for a better response to oil spills. Large field trials which were conducted during the past two years raised some questions as to how dispersants work at sea. Even though the results obtained in different laboratory tests are generally in good accord, significant discrepancies of practical interest may be observed because of variations in the experimental conditions. With EEC support, an experimental program has been conducted by CEDRE and Institut-Français du Pétrole (IFP), both with the already-described French middle scale field test and with different laboratory tests (U.K. and French standard tests and the recently developed dilution test). With the objective of correlating the results obtained in field tests and in laboratory tests, several parameters were investigated at sea with different dispersants: the type and viscosity of the oil, slick thickness, and oil to dispersant ratio. Based mainly on the results obtained in the laboratory with dilution tests, new aspects of dispersant behavior have been identified, relating to the nature of the oil and the energy input.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Dewhirst, S. 2005. Case study of spill responses undertaken by and practical issues of implementing a tier 2 aerial dispersant and surveillance service in West and Central Africa. In 2005 International Oil Spill Conference; Prevention, Preparedness, Response, and Restoration: May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach Convention Center, Miami Beach, Florida. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 443-446. URL
Abstract
Following detailed investigation into the need and practical issues involved, The Global Alliance successfully implemented a cost effective solution to provide a Tier 2 regional aerial dispersant and surveillance service in West and Central Africa (WACAF). This paper will provide a case study of i) The practical issues concerned with the implementation of the project from conception, through development and implementation. Transboundary issues concerning the logistics and deployment of the service and location of depots are discussed along with the need for the oil community to work closely together and with national authorities are discussed. ii) The solution and rationale adopted to enable an effective response and cost effective service. iii) The response and lessons learnt by The Global Alliance following deployment of the service to two live spills in the region. Video footage of the aircraft trials and an actual spill response will be provided along with details of the aircraft and associated equipment.
© 2005 with permission from API.

Dewling, R.T.; Dorrier, J.S.; Pence, Jr., G.D. 1971. Dispersant use vs. water quality. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills: June 15-17, 1971. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 271-277.
Abstract
As environmentalists, we must constantly be aware of, and recognize the potential pollution problems that might result from an oil spill cleanup approach or system. Based on biodegradability and ultimate oxygen demand data developed by the Edison Water Quality Laboratory as well as others, it would appear that more than knowledge of toxicity and emulsion efficiency should guide our decisions regarding the use of chemical dispersants for oil spill cleanup.
© 1971 with permission from API.

Dewling, R.T.; Silva, C.C. 1979. Impact of dispersant use during the Brazilian Marina incident. In Proceedings of the 1979 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), Los Angeles, Ca., March, 1979. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 269-276.
Abstract
In January 1978, the tanker Brazilian Marina, while under tow, struck rock in São Sebastiao Channel, São Paulo, Brazil, and spilled approximately 10,000 tons (3,000,000 gallons) of 31.4 API gravity Kuwait crude. Prevailing winds and currents carried the oil in a northeasterly direction, causing pollution of the coastal embayments and beach areas in the States of São Paulo and Rio de Janerio. The most severly impacted areas were those of Ubatuba, São Paulo, and the coastline along the southwestern shore of the State of Rio de Janeiro. In an attempt to protect recreational and other public use areas, particularly the popular beaches of Ubatuba, undiluted dispersants were applied to remove oil accumulations from the shoreline. This response action while it cosmetically removed oil from the surface of the beaches, caused the oil to penetrate more deeply into the underlying sand, thus compounding the pollution and aesthetic problems attributable to the spill incident. Chemical analysis of detergent-treated and oil-contaminated sand samples from Ubatuba beaches, as well as samples from a beach area in the State of Rio de Janeiro, located approximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the spill site, found similarities between the environmental samples and the suspected source, the Brazilian Marina. Preliminary follow-up studies, conducted seven months after the incident, verified the persistence of the detergent-treated oil in the beach sand.
© 1979 with permission from API.

Dewling, R.T.; Dorrler, J.S. 1972. Handling Oil Spills by Chemical Treatment. New York: American Institute of Chemical Engineers. 18p.

Diasamidze, N.M. 1981. Effect of some oil dispersants on the survival rate and some indices of carbohydrate metabolism of the Black Sea mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Soobshcheniya Akademii Nauk Gruzinskoi SSR. 104:1, 193-196. ISSN:0132-1447.

Diaz, A. 1986. A Field Dispersant Effectiveness Test. Cincinnati, Oh.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Hazardous Waste Engineering Research Laboratory. 41p.
Abstract
The EPA's OHMSETT facility has developed a rapid field test that includes some of the theoretical aspects and conditions of dispersion at sea. This Field Dispersant Effectiveness Test (FDET) has been used to evaluate the dispersibility of various commonly-transported oils and make a database for dispersant selection and application. The FDET is designed to generate droplet sizes that closely resemble the dispersion of oil occurring at sea. A fixed mixing intensity and time induces the effects necessary to produce the dispersion and reveal the effectiveness of the dispersant and dispersibility of the oil. The measurement of the dispersibility of various crude oils with several dispersants have been incorporated into a database. This data will help the officials involved in the control of oil spills to make more informed decisions about the use of dispersants.

Dickens, D.F.; Brigham, L.W.; Parker, W.B. 2004. Advancing oil spill response in ice-covered waters: an R&D agenda. In Proceedings of the Interspill 2004 Conference, Trondheim, Norway (CD-ROM). Horten, Norway: Norwegian Oil Spill Control Association (NOSCA). 18p.

Dickins, D.F.; Thornton, D.E.; Cretney, W.J. 1987. Design and operation of oil discharge systems and characteristics of oil used in the Baffin Island Oil Spill Project. Arctic, 40:Suppl. 1, 100-108. ISSN:0004-0843. URL
Abstract
As part of the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project, two experimental oil discharges were made into bays at Cape Hatt at the northern end of Baffin Island. The objective was to allow the comparison of the nearshore fate and effects of an untreated surface oil slick and oil chemically dispersed into the water column. Weathered Lagomedio crude oil (15 m3) was discharged onto the water surface in one bay, and most of the slick became stranded on the intertidal zone under the influence of an onshore wind and ebb tide. The oil thickness averaged about 1 mm on the beach face. The same volume and type of oil premixed with Corexit 9527 in a ratio of 10:1 was pumped into a second bay through a perforated diffuser pipe lying on the bottom sediments. The cloud of chemically dispersed oil contacted the bottom sediments and benthic organisms in the second bay and an adjacent third bay. The total exposure in the water column in the second bay was about 300 µg·g-1·h and about 30 µg·g-1·h in the third bay.
© 1987, Reprinted with permission from the Arctic Institute of North America.

Dickinson, A.; Mackay, D.; McWatt, D. 1985. Report On The Beaufort Sea Small Scale Oil Spill Dispersant Trial. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. Environmental Emergencies Technologies Division. 57p.

Division Qualité des Eaux, Peche et Pisculture. 1979. Evaluation de la Toxicite Algue des Dispersants pour Hydrocarbures, vis-à-vis des Poisons. Protocols Experimental. Paris: CTGREF, Peche et Pisculture. (no page information available).

Dodd, E.N. 1974. Oil and dispersants: chemical considerations. In Beynon, L.R.; Cowell, E.B. (eds.). Ecological Aspects of Toxicity Testing of Oils and Dispersants. New York: Wiley. pp. 3-9. ISBN:0470071907.
Abstract
Toxicity of oil alone is difficult to assess. Unweathered crude may lose volatile constituents to the air within a few hours, during which time light ends may have dissolved and been brought into contact with marine life in areas not directly contaminated by the visible oil. The low boiling aromatics in the crude represent the acute toxic hazard, while the higher molecular weight polynuclear species may be of significance in their long-term effects. In general, the deleterious effect of oil on marine life would appear to be physical rather than chemical. Careful consideration of the solubility of hydrocarbons in water should be made when designing toxicity tests. Chemical characteristics and the action of dispersants are discussed. Environmental parameters to be considered include temp and quantity of suspended solid. Administration of the dispersant is considered, and also the desirability of having a dispersant which could invert the water-in-oil emulsions, transforming the oil into the disperse phase, Toxicity characteristics of dispersants are discussed briefly, and details given of a specification governing the supply of oil spill dispersants, prepared by P.G. Jeffrey.
© CSA, 1975.

Dodge, R.E.; Knap, A.H. 1993. Long-term monitoring (2.5 years) of effects of short-term field exposure of stony corals to dispersed and undispersed crude oil. In Case Histories for the Colloquium and Forum on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs: Health, Hazards and History. Miami, Fl.: University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science. pp. V1-V7.

Dodge, R.E. et al. 1985. The effect of dispersed oil on the calcification rate of the reef-building coral Diploria strigosa. In French Polynesian Coral Reefs: Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress: Tahiti, 27 May-1 June 1985. Moorea, French Polynesia: Antenne Museum--EPHE. Volume 6. pp. 453-457. ISBN:2905630051.

Dodge, R.E. et al. 1984. The effects of oil and oil dispersants on the skeletal growth of the hermatypic coral Diploria strigosa. Coral Reefs, 3:4, 191-198. ISSN:0722-4028. DOI:10.1007/BF00288254.
Abstract
In an attempt to understand long-term effects from brief exposures to low-level concentrations of oil and chemically dispersed oil, experiments were conducted recreating conditions of an oil slick passing over a coral reef. After exposures of 1 to 50 ppm concentrations of oil and oil/dispersant mixtures for periods between 6 and 24 hours in the laboratory and field, corals were returned to a natural environment. A year later, corals were recollected from the field and analyzed for linear growth with the alizarin strain method. No significant differences in extension growth or calical shape were noted. However, in summer experiments, calical relief was depressed following some treatments.

Dodge, R.E. et al. 1995. The Effects of Oil and Chemically Dispersed Oil in Tropical Ecosystems: 10 Years of Monitoring Experimental Sites. Washington, D.C.: Marine Spill Response Corporation. 90 leaves.

Doe, K.G.; Harris, G.W.; Wells, P.G. 1978. A Selected Bibliography on Oil Spill Dispersants. Halifax, N.S.: Environmental Protection Service (Atlantic), Fisheries and Environment Canada. 98p. ISBN:0662015738.

Doe, K.G.; Harris, G.W. 1976. Toxicity and Effectiveness Acceptability Ratings for Corexit 9527. Halifax, N.S.: Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service, Toxicity Evaluation Section. 78p.

Doe, K.G.; Wells, P.G. 1978. Acute aquatic toxicity and dispersing effectiveness of oil spill dispersants: results of a Canadian oil dispersant testing program (1973 to 1977). In McCarthy, Jr., L.T.; Lindblom, G.P.; Walter, H.F. (eds.). Chemical Dispersants for the Control of Oil Spills: A Symposium. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 50-65. ISBN:0465900024.
Abstract
An oil spill dispersant testing program was initiated in 1973 to evaluate the toxicity and dispersing effectiveness of dispersants submitted to Fisheries and Environment Canada for approval prior to use in Canadian waters. Screening toxicity tests with rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were performed initially on 19 dispersants. Thirteen were considered sufficiently nonacutely toxic to justify further evaluation using methods and criteria of the Canadian Guidelines on the use and acceptability of oil spill dispersants. Twelve of the 13 dispersants had 4-day LC50’s to rainbow trout ranging from 50 to 39 360 mg/litre, while the 4-day LC50’s twelve dispersant/No. 2B fuel oil (1:1) mixtures ranged from 35 to 300 mg/litre. Six dispersants passed the toxicity criteria with 4-day LC50’s greater than 1000 mg/litre for the dispersant and 100 mg/litre for the dispersant/oil mixture. Effectiveness tests were conducted with No. 2B fuel, Largo Medio crude oil, and medium and heavy Bunker oils. Twelve dispersants passed the effectiveness criterion by dispersing greater than 65 percent of one or more types of oil. Effectiveness of dispersants varied with oil type and with temperature and salinity of the water. The dispersants BP1100X, Corexit 8666, Drew Chemical OSE 71, Drew Chemical OSE 72, Oilsperse 43, and Sugee #2 passed both the toxicity and effectiveness criteria and were placed on the Canadian standard list of acceptable oil spill dispersants. Acute lethal toxicity tests with BP1100X and Sugee #2 showed that rainbow trout in fresh water were more sensitive than two marine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus and Menidia menidia, while fourth stage larval lobsters, Homarus americanus, were the least sensitive.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Dominguez-Laseca, L.F.; Bergueiro-López, J.R.; Garcia, R.J.A. 1986. Biodegradation in emulsions of crude oil (type Kirkuk) and non-ionic dispersants. In Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar. Seminar Sponsored by Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, June 10-12, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Beauregard Press. pp. 652-660. ISBN:0662148126.

Dowden, B.F. 1965. Toxicity of commercial waste-oil emulsifiers to Daphnia magna. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 34:10, 1010-1014. ISSN:0043-1303.

Dowsett, B.O.; Cormack, D. 1986. Position Paper on Application of Dispersants at Sea: Prepared for the Committee on Effectiveness of Oil Spill Dispersants, Marine Board of the U.S. National Research Council of the U.K. London: Marine Pollution Control Unit. 17p.

Drewa, G.; Zbytniewski, Z.; Pautsch, F. 1977. The effect of detergent “solo” and crude oil on the activities of cathepsin D and acid phosphatase in hemolymph of Crangon crangon L. Polskie Archiwum Hydrobiologii, 24:2, 279-284. ISSN:0032-3764.

Duke, N.C.; Burns, K.A.; Dalhaus, O. 1998. Effects of oils and dispersed-oils on mangrove seedlings in planthouse experiments: a preliminary assessment of results two months after oil treatments. The APPEA Journal, 38:631-363. ISSN:1326-4966.

Duke, N.C.; Burns, K.A.; Ellison, J.C.; Rupp, R.J.; Dalhaus, O. 1998. Effects of oil and dispersed-oil mixtures on mature mangrove in field trials at Gladstone, The APPEA Journal. 38:637-645. ISSN:1326-4966.

Duke, N.C.; Ellison, J.C.; Burns, K.A. 1998. Surveys of oil spill incidents affecting mangrove habitat in Australia: a preliminary assessment of incidents, impacts on mangroves, and recovery of deforested areas. The APPEA Journal, 38:644-654. ISSN:1326-4966.

Duke, N.C.; Burns, K.A. 1999. Fate and Effects of Oil and Dispersed Oil on Mangrove Ecosystems in Australia, Townsville, Qld.: Australian Institute of Marine Science. 247p. URL

Duke, N.C.; Burns, K.A.; Swannell, R.P.J.; Dalhaus, O.; Rupp, R.J. 2000. Dispersant use and a bioremediation strategy as alternate means of reducing impacts of large oil spills on mangroves: the Gladstone field trials. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 41:7-12, 403-412. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(00)00133-8.
Abstract
Over a three-year period (1995-1998), we studied short-term effects of dispersant use and a bioremediation strategy in two consecutive field trials in sub-tropical Australian mangroves. In each case, weathered oil was applied, and a large spill simulated, in mature Rhizophora stylosa trees around 4-9 m tall. In the first trial, we used Gippsland light crude oil with or without dispersant, Corexit 9527. In the second, a bioremediation strategy followed application of Gippsland oil or Bunker C fuel oil. Bioremediation involved forced aeration with supplemental application of nutrients. Dispersant use had an overall positive benefit shown as reduced tree mortality. By contrast, there was no apparent reduction in mortality of trees with bioremediation. However, one year after oiling, leaf densities of surviving trees were greater in bioremediation plots than in controls, and less in oil-only plots. These and other results have been incorporated into spill response management strategies in Australia.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 41, N.C. Duke, K.A. Burns, R.P.J. Swannell, O. Dalhaus, R.J. Rupp, Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.

Duke, T.W.; Petrazzuolo, G. 1989. Oil and Dispersant Toxicity Testing: Proceedings of a Workshop on Technical Specifications held in New Orleans, January 17-19, 1989. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office. 139p.

Duke, T.W. 1989. A proposed microcosm system for evaluating the impacts of crude oil and dispersants on seagrass communities. In Duke, T.W.; Petrazzuolo, G. (eds.). Oil and Dispersant Toxicity Testing: Proceedings of a Workshop on Technical Specifications held in New Orleans, January 17-19, 1989. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Regional Office. pp. 103-108.

Dutka, B.J.; Kwan, K.K. 1984. Study of long term effects of oil and oil-dispersant mixtures on freshwater microbial populations in man made ponds. Science of the Total Environment, 35:2, 135-148. ISSN:0048-9697. DOI:10.1016/0048-9697(84)90059-7.
Abstract
In this paper, the results of a 19 month investigation of microbial communities subjected to the effects of oil and oil plus dispersant additions in man made ponds are reported. Microbial biomass estimations by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and microscopic procedures using epifluorescence indicated that oil and oil plus dispersants had little or no effect on these parameters, and any effect noted was stimulatory. However, detailed examination of specific populations indicated that oil and oil plus dispersant additions were stimulatory for short periods of time to the populations studied. Seven days after the oil and dispersant additions to the ponds, no mutagenic or toxic activities to bacteria were noted.
Reprinted from Science of the Total Environment, Volume 35, B.J. Dutka, K.K. Kwan, Copyright 1984, with permission from Elsevier.

Dutka, B.J.; Sherry, J.; Scott, B.F.; Kwan, K.K. 1980. Effects of oil-dispersant mixtures on fresh water microbial populations. Canadian Research, 13:5, 58-62. ISSN:0319-1974.

Dutrieux, E.; Martin, F.; Debry, A. 1990. Growth and mortality of Sonneratia caseolaris planted on an experimentally oil-polluted soil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 21:2, 62-68. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(90)90189-F.
Abstract
Two experiments conducted in the mangrove swamp of the Mahakam delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia) provided two years continuous study of the growth and mortality rates of Sonneratia caseolaris planted upon an oil-polluted substrate. These experiments have shown that the plants were at first submitted to a mortality phase which can be attributed to the intense toxicity of the oil. During the study period, the influence of the pollutant could be seen in the decrease in growth-rate of the surviving plants. These results are in proportion with the quantity of oil spilt, and vary according to the different treatments applied several days after pollution and before planting. Absence of treatment however gives better results on the mortality and growth of Sonneratia caseoralis.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 21, E. Dutrieux, F. Martin, A. Debry, Copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.

Dutrieux, E. 1992. Experimental study of the impact of hydrocarbons on the intertidal benthic community: the Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan, Indonesia). Oceanologica Acta, 15:2, 197-209. ISSN:0399-1784.
Abstract
Two simulated oil-spills in the Mahakam Delta revealed the consequences of this type of pollution on the site's main benthic populations. The results of these trials differentiated between short-term (high toxicity similar to chemical pollution) and long-term effects (similar to organic pollution) of hydrocarbons. Two factors affected the distribution of the main macrofaunal species: intertidal height and degree of pollution. The latter was measured either by the initial quantity of oil spilled or by concentrations measured at each sampling. These trials also showed that dispersants were inefficient and that dredging treatments did not yield positive results. Often no treatment was preferable to these two treatments. A global statistical analysis was generated to define the role of the different environmental variables, both natural or pollution-related, in the spatial distribution of the different species.
© CSA, 1992.

Duval, W.S.; Harwood, L.A.; Fink, R.P. 1980. Sublethal Effects of Physically and Chemically Dispersed Crude Oil on the Physiology and Behavior of the Estuarine Isopod, Gnorimosphaeroma oregonenis. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 66p.

Duval, W.S.; Harwood, L.A.; Fink, R.P. 1982. The Sublethal Effects of Dispersed Oil on an Estuarine Isopod. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service. 72p. ISBN:0662120752.

Dye, C.W.; Frydenborg, R.B. 1980. Oil Dispersants and the Environmental Consequences of their Usage: A Literature Review. Tallahassee, Fl.: Department of Environmental Regulation. 51p.

Eastcoast Oilspill Dispersant Symposium. 1982. Papers presented at the Eastcoast Oilspill Dispersant Symposium. (no publishing information available). 51 leaves.

Eastin, Jr., W.C.; Rattner, B.A. 1982. Effects of dispersant and crude oil ingestion on mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 29:3, 273-278. ISSN:0007-4861. DOI:10.1007/BF01706228.

Ebere, A.G.; Akintonwa, A. 1993. The effects of high doses of crude oil and a chemical dispersant on spermatogenesis in mice. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 12:6, 573. ISSN:0960-3271.

Edison Water Quality Laboratory. 1969. Chemical Treatment of Oil Slicks: A Status Report on the Use of Chemicals and Other Materials to Treat Oil Spilled on Water. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 20p.

Edison Water Quality Laboratory. 1971. Oil Dispersants Product Data. Edison, N.J.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Edison Water Quality Laboratory. 140p.

Eisler, R. 1975. Acute toxicities of crude oils and oil dispersant mixtures to Red Sea fishes and invertebrates. Israel Journal of Zoology, 24:1-2, 16-27. ISSN:0021-2210.
Abstract
Using static bioassay procedures, crude oil plus a chemical oil dispersant were tested for toxicity to adults or juveniles of ten marine species: Heteroxenia fuscescens, Nerita forskali, Drupa granulate, Mytilus variabilis, Acanthopleura haddoni, Echinometra mathaei, Calcinus lateens, Palaemon pacificus, Parupeneus barberinus, and Siganus rivulatus. LC50 (168 h), ranged from 0.006 to 0.064 ml/liter for the dispersant. LC50 (168 h) values for oil/dispersant mixtures of 10:1 for selected species ranged from 0.047 to 0.152 ml/l which appears to reflect the biocidal properties of the dispersant. Some individuals surviving immersion in high concentrations of the test compounds were adversely affected both during and after treatment.

Eisler, R. 1973. Latent effects of Iranian crude oil and a chemical oil dispersant on Red Sea molluscs. Israel Journal of Zoology, 22:97-105. ISSN:0021-2210.
Abstract
Predation rate of the gastropod drill, Drupa granulate, on the mussel, Mytilus variabilis, was measured over a period of 28 days after adults from both ssp had been immersed for 168 hrs in seawater solutions containing high sublethal concentrations (10 ml/l) of Iranian crude oil. Predation rate was 3 times higher in controls than in the group where both predator and prey had been exposed initially; intermediate values were determined among groups where only 1 sp had been treated initially. Fecundity of drills, as evidenced by number of egg cases deposited, was directly related to mussel consumption. In a similar study with a chemical oil dispersant, exposure to high (0.003 ml/l) sublethal levels for 168 hrs did not affect markedly the rate at which mussels were destroyed an consumed during post-treatment. However, the fecundity of untreated drills feeding on untreated mussels (controls) was 3 to 10 times greater than among groups in which one or both ssp had been exposed initially to dispersant. Except for mussels consumed by drills, there were no deaths during the post-treatment period in either study, and all organisms appeared normal.
© CSA, 1975.

Eisler, R. 1975. Toxic, sublethal, and latent effects of petroleum on Red Sea macrofauna, California. In 1975 Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution: Proceedings, March 25-27, 1975, San Francisco. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 535-540.
Abstract
This report studies the effects of crudes and a chemical oil counteractant on survival, metabolism, and behavior of representative species of Red Sea macrofauna under controlled environmental conditions. Specifically, it examines the action of crude oil from fields in Iran and in the Sinai, a chemical oil dispersals, and oil-dispersant mixtures on Red Sea juveniles or adults of octocorals, crutaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, and teleosts. The choice of bioassay methodology on response parameters, especially survival, was significant. A comparison of toxicity values derived from tests in large (1,500 l), deep (2.0m) tanks under conditions of continuous flow with those performed in small (3 l)jars under static conditions demonstrated that most assay spedies were up to 30 times more resistant to almost all toxicants in large tanks. Tank tests also demonstrated a protective effect with increasing depth: organisms confined to 1.0 to 1.8 m from the surface exhibited higher survival than those held at shallower depths. Sublethal and latent effects of oils and dispersants on Red Sea biota were reviewed and included reduction in feeding rate and egg case deposition of predatory gastropods, interference with substrate attachment by mussels, liver enlargement and lowered blood hematocrit values in fishes, and bioaccumulation of crude oils in octocorals. These and other data presented herein suggest that introduction of petroleum into Red Sea ecosystems may disrupt established feeding-predator patterns, reproductive processes, defense mechanisms, and conceivably other systems, and it would constitute a potential threat to population stability.
© 1975 with permission from API.

Eisler, R.; Kissil, W.G. 1975. Toxicities of crude oils and oil dispersant mixtures to juvenile rabbitfish, Siganus rivulatus. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 104:3, 571-578. ISSN:1548-8659. DOI:10.1577/1548-8659(1975)104<571:TOCOAO>2.0.CO;2.
Abstract
LC50 values were determined for two crude oils, ST 5, a chemical oil dispersant, and oil/ST 5 mixtures in 10:1 vol/vol ratios. Static tests at 41‰ salinity and 23°C produced LC50 (168 h) values of 0.010 ml/l for ST 5, with LC50 values for oil ST 5 mixtures reflecting toxic properties of ST 5 alone. ST 5 exhibited a striking reduction in lethality after 2 hr in the assay medium. Elevated sublethal levels of ST 5 caused reductions in blood hematocrit. Rabbitfish were more resistant to pollutants in continuous flow bioassays in large tanks than static jar bioassays. Tank tests also resulted in higher mortality in stressed fish confined nearer the surface (to 1 meter) than those kept at lower depths (1 to 1.8 meters).

Eisler, R.; Kissil, G.W.; Cohen, Y. 1974. Recent studies on biological effects of crude oils and oil-dispersant mixtures to Red Sea macrofauna. In Proceedings of Seminar on Methodology for Monitoring the Marine Environment: Seattle, Washington, October 1973. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. pp. 156-179.
Abstract
Acute toxicity to representative species of marine macrofauna of 2 common grades of crude oils, a chemical oil dispersant, and mixtures of oil and dispersant is summarized. Test animals were adults from locally abundant groups of coelenterates, molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, and juvenile teleosts. Both grades of crude oil were relatively innocuous when compared to the dispersant. Toxicity of oil dispersant mixtures reflected the biocidal properties of the dispersant alone. Fishes and crustaceans were among the most sensitive groups tested. Effect of time in the aerated assay medium on toxicity in high concentrations of Iranian crude oil, Sinai crude oil, and dispersant was also investigated, using the juvenile rabbitfish (Lagocephalus laevigatus). The surfactant fraction of the dispersant contained virtually all of the toxic properties. Continuous flow tank tests elucidated a depth protective effect. Sublethal and latent effects on the various fauna are also outlined.
© CSA, 1975.

El Samra, M.I.; Ibrahim, M.A.; Ahmed, I.F.; Awartani, S.M. 1986. Acute toxicity of some oil dispersants to mullet fry Liza microlepis of the Arabian Gulf. Qatar University Science Bulletin, 6:363-370. ISSN:0255-6677.

Eley, D.D.; Hey, M.J.; Lee, M.A. 1987. Rheological studies of asphaltene films adsorbed at the oil/water interface. Colloids and Surfaces, 24:2-3, 173-182. ISSN:0166-6622. DOI:10.1016/0166-6622(87)80348-7.
Abstract
The compressibilities of crude oil/water interfaces have been measured for Brega, Kuwait and Tia Juana crude oils by an adaptation of the pendant drop method. Addition to the oils of a commercial dispersant (BP1100X) which contains an oil-soluble non-ionic surfactant resulted in increased compressibilities, the rate of increase with amount of BP1100X added being inversely related to the asphaltene content of the oils. The viscoelastic properties of the interfaces were studied with a surface rheometer working at low shearing stresses. Creep curves showed rapid elastic deformation and slow irrecoverable flow. The flow curves, which were irregular, indicated very high surface viscosities which appeared to increase with applied shear stress. It is suggested that thick films of asphaltene particles were responsible. The addition of 4% v/v BP1100X to the oils produced no effect for Kuwait and Tia Juana crudes, but Brega oil interfaces showed an increased elasticity. Interfaces formed between a dispersion of asphaltenes in n-heptane/toluene and water exhibited both rapid and retarded elasticities as well as Newtonian flow.
Reprinted from Colloids and Surfaces, Volume 24, D.D. Eley, M.J. Hey, M.A. Lee, Copyright 1987, with permission from Elsevier.

Elgershuizen, J.H.B.W.; De Kruijf, H.A.M. 1976. Toxicity of crude oils and dispersant to the stony coral Madracis mirabilis. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 7:2, 22-25. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/0025-326X(76)90305-2.
Abstract
In view of the increasing risk of oil pollution in tropical waters, experiments were carried out to assess the effect of various crude oils, an oil dispersant, and mixtures of these, on a coral dominant in the Curacao reefs; results are summarized in tables and graphs. The studies showed that the dispersant was more toxic than the oils, and it is recommended that such dispersants should be used only in the open sea; oil above coral reefs should be removed by mechanical methods, if possible with a minimum of mixing.
© CSA, 1976.

Elliot, D.; Stuart, W. 2000. The Port Stanvac incident: fixed wing aerial dispersant perspective. In Spillcon 2000: 8th International Oil Spill Conference, Darwin, Australia, 15-17 August 2000. (no publishing information available). 11p. URL

Emery, B.D.; Cuddeback, J. 1983. Development of advanced oil spill dispersant application system for Fokker F27 aircraft. In Proceedings: 1983 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 28 - March 3, 1983, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 583.

Engel, R.H.; Neat, M.J. 1971. Toxicity of oil-dispersing agents determined in a circulating aquarium system. In Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills: June 15-17, 1971. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 297-302.
Abstract
The toxicity of two non-ionic oil-dispersing agents was determined on a number of marine species: the edible mussel Mytilis edulis, winter flounder, soft shell clam, mummichog, Atlantic silversides and fourth stage lobster larvae. The bioassay system used consisted of a series of storage reservoirs and exposure tanks with a total volume of 112 liters. Water movement was provided by a series of marine aquarium pumps which circulated water at a rate of 4 liters/min. Additional aeration was not required for the mummichog, mussel or fourth stage lobster larvae. At 20°C, TL50’s calculated from 24 to 96 hours fell between 30 and 75 mg/l, with no significant difference in toxicity between the two dispersants. At 5°C, toxicity in the mummichog was significantly lower; this may be explained by the accompanying higher oxygen levels. The advantages of the circulating aquarium system in relation to the static and continuous-flow bioassay systems are discussed.
© 1971 with permission from API.

Engelhardt, F.R.; Gilfillan, E.S.; Boehm, P.D.; Mageau C. 1985. Metabolic effects and hydrocarbon fate in arctic bivalves exposed to dispersed petroleum. Marine Environmental Research, 17:2-4, 245-249. ISSN:0141-1136. DOI:10.1016/0141-1136(85)90097-2.
Abstract
A number of experiments were carried out in the Canadian Arctic on Baffin Island with the purpose of defining the short- and long-term effects of exposure to dispersed crude oil on marine benthic invertebrates. The study reported here assessed metabolic responses by physiological and biochemical indices, and evaluated these in relation to exposure concentration. The overall objective of the study was to evaluate the potential for long-term survival of benthic communities in the Arctic following an oil spill. This objective was consistent with the goals of the larger Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) program, which was implemented to evaluate the relative mitigating effectiveness of chemical dispersants, as compared to conventional oil spill counter-measures.
Reprinted from Marine Environmental Research, Volume 17, F.R. Engelhardt, E.S. Gilfillan, P.D. Boehm, C. Mageau, Copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevier.

Engelhardt, F.R.; Mageau, C.; Gilfillan, E.S.; Boehm, P.D. 1984. Effects of acute and long-term exposure to dispersed oil in benthic invertebrates. In Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1984, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Protection Service, Environmental Emergency. pp. 367-392.

Engelhardt, R.; Mageau, C.; Trucco, R. 1983. Behavioural responses of benthic invertebrates exposed to dispersed crude oil. In Proceedings of the Arctic Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar; June 14-16, 1983, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technical Services Branch, Environmental Protection Service. pp. 32-51.

Epstein, N.; Bak, R.P.M.; Rinkevich, B. 2000. Toxicity of third generation dispersants and dispersed Egyptian crude oil on Red Sea coral larvae. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 40:6, 497-503. ISSN:0025-326X. DOI:10.1016/S0025-326X(99)00232-5.
Abstract
Harmful effects of five third-generation oil dispersants (Inipol IP-90, Petrotech PTI-25, Bioreico R-93, Biosolve and Emulgal C-100) on planula larvae of the Red Sea stony coral Stylophora pistillata and the soft coral Heteroxenia fuscescense were evaluated in short-term (2-96 h) bioassays. Larvae were exposed to Egyptian oil water soluble fractions (WSFs), dispersed oil water accommodated fractions (WAFs) and dispersants dissolved in seawater, in different concentrations. Mortality, settlement rates and the appearance of morphological and behavioural deformations were measured. While oil WSF treatments resulted in reductions in planulae settlement only, treatments by all dispersants tested revealed a further decrease in settlement rates and additional high toxicity. Dispersed oil exposures resulted in a dramatic increase in toxicity to both coral larvae species. Furthermore, dispersants and WAFs treatments caused larval morphology deformations, loss of normal swimming behaviour and rapid tissue degeneration. Out of the five tested dispersion agents, the chemical Petrotech PTI-25 displayed the least toxicity to coral larvae. We suggest avoidance of the use of chemical dispersion in cases of oil spills near or within coral reef habitats.
Reprinted from Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 40, N. Epstein, R.P.M. Bak, B. Rinkevich, Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.

Eriksson, F.; Hirvi, J.H. 1989. Oil Spill Dispersants in Brackish Water. Åbo, Finland: Åbo Akademi University, Department of Physical Chemistry. (no page information available).

Eriksson, F. 1993. A comparative study of oil spill dispersants in brackish water. In Combatting Marine Oil Spills in Ice and Cold Conditions: Seminar, Helsinki, Finland 1-3 December 1993: Proceedings. Helsinki: National Board of Waters and the Environment. (no page information available).

Estrades, M.; Bergueiro-López, J.R. 1980. Dispersing agents for elimination of crude petroleum. Progress in Water Technology, 12:1, 35-48. ISSN:0306-6746.
Abstract
The object of this work was to determine the minimum quantity of dispersant that may be used to obtain optimum dispersion as a function of a series of variables with respect to time of mixing, velocity of mixing, type of mixer, temperature etc. In agreement with data given in the paper it is concluded that the dispersion of crude petroleum is more influenced by the velocity of mixing them by the ratio of dispersant to crude oil. The optimum dispersion occurs at a mixing speed of 4000 rpm, small variations occurring at 4500 rpm. Dispersal ability increases by means which increase the relationship of dispersal to crude oil, reaching a maximum at 0.3 g dispersant to 5 g crude oil. An increase in the relationship dispersal/crude oil greater than on the previous paragraph does not imply an increase in the capacity to disperse, in some cases leading to a small reduction in dispersal capacity. Of all the errors detected, the greatest are those due to errors in calibration. No errors have been found due to ageing of samples and undergoing decomposition. The average error is not constant at all ranges of concentration. Based on regression analyses of the data and on a 90% confidence limit, the results indicate a deviation of 3% from the mean with a 15% dispersion.

Etkin, D.S. 1998. Factors in the dispersant use decision-making process: Historical overview and look to the future. In Proceedings: Twenty-First Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 10 to 12, 1998, West Edmonton Mall Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 281-304. URL
Abstract
In this review, the author looks at the history of dispersant use and case studies of specific spills to underscore the political, financial and technical issues influencing the decision-making process in past, and most likely, future responses to oil spills.

Etkin, D.S. 1999. Oil Spill Dispersants: From Technology to Policy. Arlington, Ma.: Cutter Information. 306p.
Abstract
This review brings together international research on chemical and physical processes involved in dispersant use, effectiveness and environmental impacts of dispersant use. It also presents an analysis of the financial costs of dispersant use. The report investigates the history of dispersant use through data and reviews case histories to highlight the political, technical, and financial issues that influence the decision- and policy-making processes. Included are reviews of current national dispersant use policies and the decision methodologies used in various nations.

European Maritime Safety Agency. 2005. Use of Oil Spill Dispersants in European Waters. Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. (no page information available). URL

European Maritime Safety Agency. 2008. Report of the 2nd EMSA Dispersants Workshop: Towards a Harmonised Approach in Dispersant Usage in the EU. Lisbon: European Maritime Safety Agency. 8p. URL

European Maritime Safety Agency. 2005. Action Plan for Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response. Brussels: European Maritime Safety Agency. 65p. URL

European Maritime Safety Agency. 2007. Inventory of National Policies Regarding the Use of Oil Spill Dispersants in the EU Members States. Lisbon: European Maritime Safety Agency. 58p. URL

Evans, G.W.; Lyes, M.; Lockwood, A.P.M. 1977. Some effects of oil spill dispersants on the feeding behaviour of the brown shrimp, Crangon crangon. Marine Behaviour and Physiology, 4:3, 171-181. ISSN:0091-181X.
Abstract
1 ppm - 100 ppm concentrations of dispersants Tween 80, BP 1100X and Slickgone LT2 in seawater decrease food consumption of Crangon crangon, as well as the ability of the organism to select the correct path in a Y-maze which contains a food extract. The shrimp recuperated, and were able to locate food within four hours after a return to clean seawater after prior exposure to 10 ppm Tween 80, BP 1100X or Slickgone LT2.

Evers, K.U.; Sørheim, K.R.; Singsaas, I. 2006. Oil Spill Contingency Planning in the Arctic - Recommendations. Helsinki: ARCOP. 47p. URL

Evers, K.U.; Singsaas, I.; Sørheim, K.R. 2005. Development of New Oil Spill Response Concepts. Helsinki: ARCOP. 38p. URL

Exxon Chemical Company. 1985. Oil Spill Chemicals Applications Guide. 3rd edition. Houston, Tx.: Exxon Chemical Americas. 13p.

Exxon Mobil Corporation. 2000. ExxonMobil Dispersant Guidelines. Alexandria, Va.: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co. 140p.

Exxon Production Research Company. 1978. Research Needed to Determine Effectiveness of Chemicals in Treating Oil Spills and the Toxicity of Chemically Dispersed Oil, Workshop Proceedings: Deliberations and Recommendations of a Workshop Sponsored by Exxon Production Research Company, Houston, Texas, November 28-30, 1978. Houston, Tx.: Exxon Production Research Company. 51p.

ExxonMobil. 2003. Effects of Time and Freezing on Dispersant Effectiveness. ExxonMobil unpublished data. (no page information available).

Fabregas, J.; Herrero, C.; Veiga, M. 1984. Effect of oil and dispersant on growth and chlorophyll a content of the marine microalga Tetraselmis suecica. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 47:2, 445-447. ISSN:0099-2240.
Abstract
The dispersant SEAKLIN-101-NT, used in the Urquiola spill, was tested alone and in 1:1 mixtures with weathered crude oil taken from the same spill. Concentrations of both dispersant and oil/dispersant mixture ranged from 1 to 400 ppm, and 800 ppm of dispersant alone in seawater. Results indicate that doses did not induce toxicity in T. suecica at any concentration, although inhibitory effects on growth of the microalga were found at higher concentrations for both dispersant and oil/dispersant mixtures. Chlorophyll a content was not significantly affected by any exposure.

Falk, M.; Seta, P.F. 1970. Evaluation of Detergents for Dealing With Bunker C Oil and Goop. Halifax, N.S.: National Research Council of Canada, Atlantic Regional Laboratory. 2p.

Falk-Petersen, I.B.; Lönning, S.; Jakobson, R. 1979. Effects of oil and oil dispersants on plankton organisms. Astarte, 12:2, 45-47. ISSN:0044-9768.
Abstract
Dispersants (Corexit 8354, 9527, 9600, BP 1100 X, 1100 WD, Finasol OSR2, OSR5, OSR7) and Shell dispersant concentrate with and without the presence of Ekofisk crude were tested on eggs and larvae of sea urchins, marine fish, and copepods. Corexit 9527, Finasol OSR5 and OSR7 without the presence of crude oil had the most toxic effect on test species. Oil/dispersant combinations had greater impact on species than oil or dispersant alone.

Falk-Petersen, I.B.; Kjørsvik, E. 1987. Acute toxicity tests of the effects of oils and dispersants on marine fish embryos and larvae: a review. Sarsia, 72:3-4, 411-413. ISSN:0036-4827.
Abstract
Cod, flounder, plaice, as well as other demersal and pelagic fish species, were used at various developmental stages (mostly egg and larval) to determine the toxicity of a number of hydrocarbons and oil-related products. Between 1 and 10 ppm of dispersant concentrates caused large proportions of abnormal embryos. Dispersant/oil combinations were also found to be toxic. Corexit 9527, Finasol OSR5 and Finasol OSR7 were found to be the most toxic of dispersants tested.

Farke, H.; Wonneberger, K.; Gunkel, W.; Dahlmann, G. 1985. Effects of oil and a dispersant on intertidal organisms in field experiments with a mesocosm, the Bremerhaven Caisson. Marine Environmental Research, 15:2, 97-114. ISSN:0141-1136. DOI:10.1016/0141-1136(85)90132-1.
Abstract
Three medium-scale field experiments on the effects of oil, a dispersant and an oil/dispersant mixture were carried out in an intertidal mud flat ecosystem of the Wadden Sea (German Bight). For six successive tides each contaminant was added to the water enclosed in a mesocosm during submersion of the flat. The fate of the oil in the sediment and effects on phytobenthos, bacteria and macrozoobenthos were studied. Penetration of the oil into the sediment was mainly observed at the surface layer. were present when oil was chemically dispersed. Sublethal effects were found in some macrofauna species (reduced feeding activity) and in phytobenthic organisms (increased activity); oil degrading bacteria increased. No major effects were observed when the dispersant alone was added.
Reprinted from Marine Environmental Research, Volume 15, H. Farke, K. Wonneberger, W. Gunkel, G. Dahlmann, Copyright 1985, with permission from Elsevier.

Farke, H.; Günther, C.P. 1984. Effects of oil and a dispersant on intertidal macrofauna in field experiments with Bremerhaven Caissons and in the laboratory. In Persoone, G.; Jaspers, E.; Claus, C. (eds.). Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ecotoxicological Testing for the Marine Environment, Ghent, Belgium, September 12-14, 1983. Bredene, Belgium: Institute for Marine Scientific Research. Volume 2. pp. 219-235. ISBN:9090008136.

Farke, H.; Blome, D.; Theobald, N.; Wonneberger, K. 1985. Field experiments with dispersed oil and a dispersant in an intertidal ecosystem: fate and biological effects. In Proceedings: 1985 Oil Spill Conference, (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, California. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 515-520.
Abstract
Experiments with chemically and ultrasonically dispersed Arabian light crude oil and a dispersant (Finasol OSR 5) were carried out on an intertidal sand flat in the Wadden Sea (German Bight). “Bremerhaven Caissons,” flow through mescocosms for intertidal field experiments, allowed pollutant addition to the enclosed water during submersion time. Reiterated contaminations over a period of 12 successive tides of low concentrations of oil (10 ppm) and dispersant made it possible to study penetration and alteration processes of the dispersed oil in the sediment. Sublethal and lethal effects upon microphytobenthos, meiofauna, and macrofauna were observed. Oil reduced the activity of microbenthic algae and the food uptake of filter feeding bivalves and a polychaete. Nematodes showed a lower diversity and decreasing abundance in some groups. No major differences between the effects of chemically and ultrasonically dispersed oil on the benthos were observed. Application of dispersant alone had no clear effects when compared to controls.
© 1985 with permission from API.

Farke, H.; Günther, C.P.; Arntz, W.E. 1992. Bremerhaven Caissons - experience and results of experiments with dispersed crude oil in intertidal enclosures. In Wong, C.S.; Harvison, P.J. (eds.). Marine Ecosystem Enclosed Experiments: Proceedings of a Symposium Held in Beijing, Peoples Republic of China, 9-14 May 1987. Ottawa, Ont.: International Development Research Centre. pp. 43-56. ISBN:0889365431.

Farlow, J.S. 1995. Comments on the use of dispersant laboratory effectiveness and toxicity data. In The Use of Chemical Countermeasure Product Data for Oil Spill Planning and Response: Workshop Proceedings, April 4-6, 1995, Xerox Document University and Conference Center, Leesburg, VA. Alexandria, Va.: Scientific and Environmental Associates. Volume 2. pp. 201-206.

Farn, R.J. 1983. Sinking and dispersing oil. In Wardley-Smith, J. (ed.). The Control of Oil Pollution. London: Graham & Trotman Ltd. pp. 172-197. ISBN:0860103382.

Faubel, A. 1984. Experimental investigations about effects of crude oil and dispersed crude oil in tidal flat environments. X. Turbellaria. Senckenbergiana Maritima, 16:1-6, 153-170. ISSN:0080-889X.

Fay, R.R. 1993. Measuring the aerial application of oil dispersant from very large aircraft at moderate altitude. In Proceedings, Sixteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 7-9, 1993, Westin Hotel, Calgary, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technology Development Branch. pp. 1057-1063.

Federal Region VI Response Team. 1995. FOSC preapproved dispersant use manual. In The Use of Chemical Countermeasure Product Data for Oil Spill Planning and Response: Workshop Proceedings, April 4-6, 1995, Xerox Document University and Conference Center, Leesburg, VA. Alexandria, Va: Scientific and Environmental Associates. Volume 2:(various pagings).

Feng, J.H. et al. 2006. The surfactant Tween 80 enhances biodesulfurization. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 72:11, 7390-7393. ISSN:0099-2240. DOI:10.1128/AEM.01474-06.

Fieldhouse, B.; Wang, Z.; Fingas, M. 2005. The effectiveness of dispersants under various temperature and salinity regimes. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 7-9, 2005, Calgary (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 377-392.

Finch, L.M.; Blacklaw, J.R.; Henager, C.H. 1972. Oil Spill Treating Agents; A Compendium. Richland, Wa.: Pacific Northwest Laboratories. 281p.

Fingas M.F. 1988. Evaluation of oil spill chemical additives. In Proceedings of Technology Assessment and Research Program for Offshore Minerals Operation Workshop. Herndon, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. pp. 148-152. URL

Fingas, M. 2002. A White Paper on Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Field Testing. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 30p. URL

Fingas, M. 2003. Review of Monitoring Protocols for Dispersant Effectiveness. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 33p. URL

Fingas, M.; Fieldhouse, B.; Sigouin, L.; Wang, Z.; Mullin, J.V. 2001. Dispersant effectiveness testing: laboratory studies of fresh and weathered oils. In Proceedings: Twenty-Fourth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Eighteenth Technical Seminar on Chemical Spills (TSOCS) and Third Phytoremediation/Biotechnology Solutions for Spills (PHYTO), June 12 to 14, 2001, Sheraton Grande Edmonton Hotel, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 551-566.
Abstract
Gas chromatography with flame ionization detection was employed to determine the effectiveness of Corexit 9500 on various crude oils. Effectiveness was found to decrease with increasing weathering, but did not correlate with simple oil properties, such as density, viscosity, or maximum weathering percentages.

Fingas, M. 2002. A Review of Literature Related to Oil Spill Dispersants Especially Relevant to Alaska. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 37p. URL

Fingas, M. 2002. A White Paper on Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Testing in Large Tanks. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 16p. URL

Fingas, M.; Wang, Z.; Fieldhouse, B.; Smith, P. 2003. Chemical Characteristics of an Oil and the Relationship to Dispersant Effectiveness. Ottawa: Emergencies Science and Technology Division, Environment Canada, Environmental Technology Centre. 50p. URL

Fingas, M.; Wang, Z.; Fieldhouse, B.; Smith, P. 2003. The correlation of chemical characteristics of an oil to dispersant effectiveness. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, June 10-12, 2003, Victoria (British Columbia) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 679-730.

Fingas, M.; Wang, Z.; Fieldhouse, B.; Smith, P. 2003. Dispersed oil resurfacing with time. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Sixth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, June 10-12, 2003, Victoria (British Columbia) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 731-742.

Fingas, M. 2004. Dispersants, Salinity and Prince William Sound. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 48p. URL

Fingas, M.; Fieldhouse, B.; Wang, Z. 2004. Dispersant testing - study on analytical and test procedures. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 8-10, 2004, Edmonton (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 807-817.
Abstract
A reevaluation of the analytical procedure used for the Swirling Flask Test found that the integration method could be improved. It is believed that integrating the entire chromatogram, rather than its peaks, would lead to a decrease in the maximum variation from 5% to 2%. Authors also recommended a consideration of using a vessel with a septum port instead of a spout. Results of tests using a septum flask found effectiveness results were approximately 8% lower, and showed lower standard deviations than the standard flask.

Fingas, M.; Ka'aihue, L. 2004. Dispersant field testing - a review of procedures and considerations. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 8-10, 2004, Edmonton (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 1017-1046.
Abstract
Among the topics covered in this review are testing methodologies and procedures, environmental and physical variables, and analytical measurements and standards.

Fingas, M.; Ka'aihue, L. 2004. Dispersant tank testing - a review of procedures and considerations. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 8-10, 2004, Edmonton (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 1003-1016.
Abstract
This review compiles the findings of studies related to testing methodologies in effectiveness studies of dispersants done in large tanks. Critical factors warranting consideration included in methodology include mass balance, analytical method, measurements related to physical properties of the oil, and properties of the water in the tank, among other things.

Fingas, M. 2001. The Basics of Oil Spill Cleanup. 2nd edition. Boca Raton, Fla.: Lewis Publishers. 233p. ISBN:1566705371.

Fingas, M. 2005. Stability and Resurfacing of Dispersed Oil. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 83p. URL

Fingas, M.; Decola, E. 2006. Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Testing in OHMSETT February – March. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 47p. URL

Fingas, M.; Ka'aihue, L. 2006. Oil spill dispersion stability and oil re-surfacing. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, 6-8 June 2006, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 729-820.

Fingas, M.; Ka'aihue, L. 2004. Review of monitoring protocols for dispersant effectiveness. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 8-10, 2004, Edmonton (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 977-1002. URL
Abstract
The authors review field monitoring protocols related to dispersant effectiveness. Current protocols, including NOAA’s Special Monitoring Applied Response Technology (SMART), are subject to false positives and false negative associated with the techniques. Twenty-eight considerations related to dispersant monitoring are listed, and recommendations are given for screening tests of dispersants to be undertaken before application of the dispersant in field tests.

Fingas, M. 2004. Weather Windows for Oil Spill Countermeasures. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 89p. URL

Fingas, M.; Ka'aihue, L. 2004. Weather windows for oil spill countermeasures. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Seventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 8-10, 2004, Edmonton (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 881-955.
Abstract
A review of published literature on oil spill countermeasures was initiated to find any data related to performance of countermeasure techniques in varying weather conditions. Results found that wind and wave height were the most important factors influencing countermeasures. The application and effectiveness of dispersants were found to be affected by weather because of the amount of dispersant that is applied directly to a spill is wind-dependent, and because the dispersal of oil and the amount of oil suspended in the water column are both dependent on turbulence of the ocean.

Fingas, M. 2005. A Survey of Tank Facilities for Testing Oil Spill Dispersants. Anchorage, Ak.: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. 59p. URL

Fingas, M. et al. 2000. Recent results from dispersant testing. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 14 to 16, 2000, Coast Plaza Suite Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 681-695. URL
Abstract
Recent results of dispersant testing are reviewed, including slight revision in the dispersant analytical procedures, testing of new products, testing of long-term stored dispersants, and a comparison of Corexit 9527 and 9500 dispersant formulations. The procedure for the Swirling Flask Test has not altered appreciably since its inception, however the analysis of the quantity of oil dispersed has undergone significant changes. The originally-developed procedure made use of colorimetric analysis, but has since advanced to gas chromatographic analysis. With the change in analysis method, however, a host of subtle changes have been required that were not considered when first changing from colorimetry to gas chromatography. A number of minor improvements have been made to the procedure to correct and upgrade facets of the analysis. Several new dispersant products have been tested, results of this testing will be summarized. A test series was conducted on the dispersant Corexit 9527 that had been stored for more than 20 years in a tank truck. The tests show that the effectiveness, toxicity and colour of the product did vary somewhat between the three levels, however this might not be significant in terms of field effectiveness. A comparison of the laboratory effectiveness of Corexit 9527 and 9500 was completed. Results show that the effectiveness of 9500 is generally greater than that of 9527, however, this is not related to the amount of effectiveness. Generally, the higher the effectiveness, the greater the effectiveness of 9500 and vice versa. Statistically, about ¼ of the time, 9527 is more effective than 9500.
(Author’s abstract).

Fingas, M.F. 1985. The effectiveness of oil spill dispersants. Spill Technology Newsletter, 10:4-6, 47-64. ISSN:0381-4459.

Fingas, M.F. 1989. Field measurement of effectiveness: historical review and examination of analytical methods. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 157-178. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
Data are provided on 106 separate offshore experimental spills to determine dispersant field effectiveness. Effectiveness ratings for 25 of these spills were assigned by the experimenters; they vary from 0 to 100% and have an average of 33%. Measurement techniques used for these experiments are reviewed and describe. The techniques include: subsurface measurements to determine oil in the water column, surface sampling to determine oil remaining, dispersant application amount or distribution, and the use of remote sensing to observe visually the results or to quantify the area of surface oil. Existing means of detection and quantification appear to be effective. Most experimenters have used subsurface oil data in an attempt to establish a mass balance and thereby an effectiveness value. This technique is critically examined using values from historical trials, and it is shown that the subsurface oil does not have a regular distribution in relation to the surface slick. Correlation cannot be established between concentrations at depth or with time and distance. This lack of correlation implies that mass balance values based on subsurface oil concentrations in relation to the surface slick are not reliable. Effectiveness results claimed in the literature are also suspect because they do not correlate well with the maximum oil concentration seen at a given depth. The mathematical relationships used to provide the integrated amount of oil in the water column are also examined. It is shown by simulation that effectiveness claimed is highly sensitive to both assumptions and mathematical treatment. Historical data are used to show that effectiveness values can vary over an order of magnitude depending on the algorithm used. Values in the literature are generally the highest one would obtain using reasonable algorithms. A number of phenomena have been observed at spill sites. Herding of oil occurs immediately after dispersant application and has sometimes been misinterpreted as dispersion. Examinations of spills where slicks were monitored for longer than 3 h show that extensive resurfacing of oil occurred. Resurfacing is particularly problematic because, depending on current and wind, resurfacing may occur outside slick boundaries. When this occurs, resurfaced oil is not included in subsequent calculations, and consequently, effectiveness is overestimated. Field effectiveness cannot be reliably determined by using only measurements of oil in the water column. The distribution of oil in the water column is not known nor does it necessarily bear a relationship to surface slick boundaries. Furthermore, in the initial hours--perhaps as many as 7--the oil concentration in the water column may be transitory as significant amounts of oil resurface. Remote sensing over a long-term such as two or three days is suggested as the primary technique for monitoring experimental spills and for attempting to establish a mass balance.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Fingas, M.F.; Munn, D.L.; White, B.; Stoodley, R.G.; Crerar, I.D. 1989. Laboratory testing of dispersant effectiveness: the importance of oil-to-water ratio and settling time. In Proceedings: 1989 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup); February 13-16, 1989, San Antonio, Texas. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 365-374.
Abstract
Laboratory tests and apparatus for oil spill dispersant effectiveness were the subject of the present study. A review of previous work shows that test results from different apparatus are not highly correlated, and often the rank of effectiveness is also not correlated. The effect of two experimental parameters--settling time and oil-to water ratio--are examined in this study and found to be very important in determining final effectiveness value. Four apparatus--the swirling flask, the flowing column, the Labofina, and the Mackay--are used with 3 dispersants and 16 oils to examine effectiveness values when the oil-to-water ratio is the same (1: 1,200) and when the settling time is maintained at the same value (10 minutes) in all apparatus. The effectiveness values resulting from the four devices are nearly identical after values from the more energetic devices are corrected for natural dispersion. Our conclusions are that the most important parameters of laboratory dispersant testing are settling time and oil-to-water ratio. Energy is less important than previously thought and is important only to the extent that when high energy is applied to an oil-dispersant system, dispersion is increased by an amount related to the oil's natural dispersibility.
© 1989 with permission from API.

Fingas, M.F.; Di Fruscio, M.; White, B.; Crerar, I. 1989. Studies on the mechanism of dispersant action: weathering and selection of alkanes. In Proceedings: Twelfth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1989, Marlborough Inn, Calgary, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Technology Development and Technical Services Branch, Environment Canada. pp. 61-89. ISBN:0662567226. URL

Fingas, M.F.; Dufort, V.M.; Hughes, K.A.; Bobra, M.A.; Duggan, L.V. 1989. Laboratory studies on oil spill dispersants. In Flaherty, L.M. (ed.). Oil Dispersants: New Ecological Approaches. Philadelphia, Pa.: American Society for Testing and Materials. pp. 207-219. ISBN:0803111940.
Abstract
Laboratory tests of oil spill dispersant effectiveness are used around the world to select dispersants for application to specific oils. These tests are presumed, by some, to represent real sea conditions and to provide the user with a result that is representative if not identical to a real dispersant application at sea. A number of tests have been developed over the years. At this time, the two most widely used tests are the Mackay test, otherwise known as the Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman (MNS) test, and the Labofina test, otherwise known as the Warren Springs or rotating flask test. The Mackay test employs a high velocity air stream to energize 6 L of water, whereas the Labofina test uses rotation of a separatory funnel with 250 mL of water. Both tests apply a large amount of energy to the oil/water system. This paper compares test results from these apparatus with those from two lesser known devices, the oscillating hoop and the swirling flask. Both devices are relatively new, and protocols for their use have not been finalized. The oscillating hoop apparatus uses a hoop which is moved up and down at the water surface. The concentric waves serve both to energize the oil in the hoop and to contain it. Thirty-five litres of water are used in this test. The swirling flask test makes use of a 125-mL Erlenmeyer flask. The flask is rotated using a standard chemical/biological shaker to produce a swirling motion in the contents. The results obtained using all 4 apparatus with a number of oils and dispersants are presented. A total of 121 oil/dispersant combinations were tested in the 4 apparatus. The correlation of numeric values between the Mackay, Labofina, oscillating hoop, and swirling flask is low. The correlation of effectiveness ranking is also poor. An oil that disperses more readily than another, according to one test, is less readily dispersable according to one or more of the other tests. Similarly, a dispersant that is more effective by one test is less effective by another. The results from the oscillating hoop correlate poorly with all other test results. Specific tests were also conducted to ascertain the effect of settling or rising time (the time the oil-in-water mixture is allowed to sit unagitated before a sample is taken). Longer settling times alter the oscillating hoop test results dramatically, improve the correlation for results with different apparatus and enhance correlation with physical data such as viscosity.differences in the effectiveness results are still present. Results show that all the high energy tests (the Mackay, the Labofina and the oscillating hoop) produce unique dispersant effectiveness results and those correlate poorly with the physical properties of the oil.
© ASTM International. Used with permission of ASTM International.

Fingas, M.F.; Bobra, M.A.; Velicogna, R.K. 1987. Laboratory studies on the chemical and natural dispersability of oil. In Proceedings: 1987 Oil Spill Conference (Prevention, Behavior, Control, Cleanup), April 6-9, 1987, Baltimore, Maryland. Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute. pp. 241-246.
Abstract
We have reviewed the laboratory testing of the chemical and natural dispersion of oil, noting the weaknesses of the Mackay test and comparing it to other methods. Results of both chemical and natural dispersion tests show that anomalous test results are produced in the Mackay apparatus at 0° C. This is attributed to preferential viscous shearing when the oil viscosity is 30 to 200 centistokes (cs). A new test uses a small swirling flask. Dispersant effectiveness results for ten oils from the Mackay, Labofina, and swirling flask tests were compared and the correlation found to be low. Results from the new swirling flask test correlate well with physical property data, especially viscosity. Each laboratory test produces somewhat unique results, and no way has yet been found to determine which test most accurately represents reality.
© 1987 with permission from API.

Fingas, M.F.; Hughes, K.A.; Schweitzer, M.A. 1987. Dispersant testing at the Environmental Emergencies Technology Division. In Proceedings of the Tenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 9-11, 1987, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 343-356. ISBN:0662154630.

Fingas, M.F. 1988. Dispersant effectiveness at sea: a hypothesis to explain current problems with effectiveness. In Proceedings: Eleventh Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 7-9, 1988, Sheraton Landmark Hotel, Vancouver, British Columbia. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 455-479. ISBN:0662559282.

Fingas, M.F.; Kyle, D.A.; Wang, Z.; Huang, E.; Mullin, J.V. 1996. Characterization of oil in the water column and on the surface after chemical dispersion. In Proceedings, Nineteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar: June 12-14, 1996, Sandman Hotel, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada, Technical Services Branch. pp. 481-496.

Fingas, M.F.; Ka'aihue, L. 2005. A literature review of the variation of dispersant effectiveness with salinity. In Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar: June 7-9, 2005, Calgary (Alberta) Canada. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp.1043-1084.

Fingas, M.F. 1991. Dispersants: A Review of Effectiveness Measures and Studies. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Emergencies Technology Division, Environment Canada. 18p. URL

Fingas, M.F.; Tennyson, E.J. 1991. A Review of Oil Spill Dispersants and Their Effectiveness. Ottawa, Ont.: Environmental Emergencies Technology Division, Environment Canada. 78p. URL

Fingas, M.F.; Sigouin, L.; Wang, Z.; Thouin, G. 2002. Resurfacing of dispersed oil with time in the swirling flask. In Twenty-Fifth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program (AMOP) Technical Seminar, Nineteenth Technical Seminar on Chemical Spills (TSOCS) and Fourth Biotechnology Solutions for Spills (BIOSS): June 11 to 13, 2002, Westin Calgary Hotel, Calgary, Alberta. Canada: Proceedings Environment Canada. pp. 773-783.

Fingas, M.F. 2000. Use of surfactants for environmental applications. In Schramm, L.L. (ed.). Surfactants: Fundamentals and Applications in the Petroleum Industry. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 461-539. ISBN:0521640679.

Fingas, M.F. 1991. A review of laboratory dispersant testing. In Proceedings of the EPA Dispersant Testing Workshop. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. 46p.

Fingas, M.F. 1988. Chemical treatment of oil spills. In Jason, N.H. (ed.). Alaska Arctic Offshore Oil Spill Response Technology Workshop: Proceedings, Anchorage, Alaska, November 29-December 1, 1988. Gaithersburg, Md.: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. pp. 27-46. URL

Fingas, M.F.; Stoodley, R.G.; Stone, N.D.; Kolokowski, B.M. 1990. Testing of oil spill treating agents. In Proceedings of the Seventh National Conference on Hazardous Wastes and Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Materials Research Control Institute. Silver Spring, Md.: Hazardous Materials Research Control Institute. pp. 463-466. URL
Abstract
This paper is a review of five types of chemical treatments for oil spills. Gelling agents change oil to a solid or semi-solid form, but are not widely used because of the large amount of agent required. Elastol, a recovery improvement agent, has been tested and proven to function well under a variety of conditions. A number of oil-in-water emulsion preventers and breakers have been proposed, but none is commercially available. A demoussifier developed by Environment Canada has been recently tested and found to be effective. Surface washing agents contain surfactants and quantitative results on a number of these agents are presented. Dispersants contain surfactants which are intended to break up oil into small droplets in the water column. No undisputed documentation exists to show that dispersants have been very effective in field situations, but analytical means to measure field effectiveness are poor. Laboratory effectiveness results are presented for a number of oils and dispersants. The main concern with treating agents is their effectiveness, and this is often dependent on molecular size and type. Oil has many molecular types and sizes, thus rendering treatment much les than totally effective.

Fingas, M.F.; Kolokowski, B.; Tennyson, E.J. 1990. Study of oil spill dispersants - effectiveness and physical studies. In Proceedings: Thirteenth Arctic and Marine Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, June 6-8, 1990, Chateau Lacombe, Edmonton, Alberta. Ottawa, Ont.: Environment Canada. pp. 265-287. ISBN:0662575350. URL